Taxonomy of meanings for 道:　　

Additional information about 道

說文解字:

Criteria
• METHOD
  

  1. The most general word for method or technique is shù 術, and the professional technique here referred is typically publicly accessible.

  2. Fāng 方 refers to a professional and often esoteric and/or recondite skill or trick.

  3. Fǎ 法 is a regular rule-governed procedure governing the proper exercise of a skill.

  4. Dào 道 is a way of being as well as a way of doing things, and this Way may be either exoteric or esoteric.

  5. Duān 端 refers to a basic method or the important features of a method.

  學有次第而後大成 "When study has method, only then will it greatly succeed." ( 宋. 歐陽修 )

• PHILOSOPHY
  

  1. Xué 學 can refer to the systematic study of the fundamentals of life, which is typically taken to involve the emulation of a master.

  2. Jiā 家 can refer to the bibliographic classification of philosophical lineage or school of thought, especially from Han times onwards, as in the six schools (liù jiā 六家 ) of "philosophy" discussed by the father of Chinese historiography, Sīmǎ Tán 司馬談.

  2. Dàoxué 道學 can refer to the pursuit of Taoist or Confucian philosophy (but the term also refers to the pursuit of Taoist religious practices) from Tang times onwards.

• TEACH
  

  1. The current general word for training, instructing, and disciplining others is jiào 教 (ant. xué 學 "study") and the standard main aim of jiào 教 is unquestioning obedience, professional skill, and intellectual conformity to the standard set by the teacher, and the word connotes use of authority and sometimes even coercion. The primary aim of jiào 教 is action conforming to a standard, and the word is commonly nominalised.

  2. Huì 誨 (ant. xí 習 "study persistently") refers to systematic and persistent efforts to teach and inculcate intellectual or practical skills ( 誨之琴 "taught him to play the zither") and moral understanding of students ( 誨女知之 "I will teach you so you understand"), and the word never implies coercion or any threat of force. Huì 誨 can be mutual, or refer to equals teaching equals, even subordinates teaching superiors 諫誨 "remonstrate with and instruct". The word is not commonly nominalised. The primary aim of huì 誨 is understanding.

  3. Huà 化 refers to successful disciplining and teaching, typically on a large social scale. See INFLUENCE

  4. Qǐ 啟 and fā 發 refer to the opening up of new intellectual and moral dimensions for others.

  5. Xùn 訓 refers in a rather abstract way to formal strict instruction and training aimed primarily at professional skill.

  6. Zhào 詔 refers to instruction by means of useful information or warning.

  7. Fēng 風 is occasionally used to refer to teaching by example.

  8. Liàn 練 refers specifically to military training and only occasionally to other forms of drill.

  9. Dào 道 refers to the content of what is taught, and is largely restricted to postnominal position, as in 儒道 "Confucian teaching".

• CHINESE LANGUAGE
  

  1. guānhuà 官話 "Mandarin" is obsolete, and its traditional antonym was xiāngyǔ 鄉語 "local speech".

  From Míng Dynasty times, this was a current word for the common vernacular language used by administrative staff of any kind throughout China.

  DC: 明何良俊《四友齋叢說 ‧ 史十一》： " 雅宜不喜作鄉語，每發口必官話。 "

  2. báihuà 白話 "plain speech, vernacular" (as opposed to wényán 文言 )

  This is a modern word referring to an easily accessible written version of the Chinese language. In classical contexts or early vernacular contexts the expression always seems to refer to "empty talk" rather than the vernacular language.

  3. guóyǔ 國語 "national language" (ant. wàiyǔ 外語 ) (pre-1950ies and Taiwan)

  A word that continues to be in increasing common use even in Mainland China today, and which is standard in places like Malaysia or Singapore, as well as in Taiwan.

  4. zhōngguóyǔ 中國語 "language of China" (ant. wàiguóyǔ 外國語 )

  Current Japanese way of writing the Japanese word for the Chinese language, but the expression has a long history in China, the first attested use being in Yáng Xióng's Model Sayings of the first century BC.

  5. pǔtōnghuà 普通話 "common language" (Mainland China) (ant. dìfāngyǔ 地方語, fāngyán 方言 "dialect (not in the ancient meaning)")

  This is a very common modern expression which corresponds to Greek koinē, and the word is always used in counterdistinction to (often mutually incomprehensible) dialects. The word has a rather political flair.

  6. Hànyǔ 漢語 "language of the Hàn people" (should include all dialects, but is often used otherwise)

  This is the most current word for the Chinese language as opposed to other 族語 "national languages". The word is very current in the Buddhist Tripitaka, but it is also attested elsewhere 庾信《奉和法筵應詔》： " 佛影胡人記，經文漢語翻。 ". The term is also attested in 世說新語.

  7. Zhōngguóhuà 中國話 "Chinese speech" (includes all dialects)

  This word is always used in counterdistinction to foreign languages. It has become current in international contexts in nineteenth century novels.

  8. Zhōngwén 中文 "Chinese (typically written) language" (ant. wàiwén 外文, often icludes speech: 會說中文 )

  This word is already attested in the medieval 搜神記, where it refers to the written language. In Modern Standard Chinese this is a very common way of referring to Chinese as opposed to foreign languages, and as a subject in school curricula.

  9. Huáyǔ 華語 "Chinese talk" (used mainly in Singapore, Hong Kong etc.)

  This word has a long history in Buddhist texts, and it is also already attested in 劉知幾《史通 ‧ 言語》： "... 必諱彼夷音，變成華語.

  10. Hànyīn 漢音 "Han-Chinese sounds" refers to the Chinese language in a poetic style. Sanskrit is currently referred to as 梵音.

  HD sub verbo 漢文： 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "

  HD: 2. 指漢語。南朝宋朱廣之《咨顧道士＜夷夏論＞》： " 想茲漢音，流入彼國。 "

  老子漢人也。

  新修科分六學僧傳 R133_p0714a04(02)║

  胡蕃國也。土地不同。則言音亦異。當其化胡成佛之際。為作漢音耶。作蕃音耶。苟以漢音。則蕃國有所不解。以蕃音。則此經之至。宜須翻譯。

  11. Hàn yán 漢言 "Hàn language, language of the Hàn Dynasty> Chinese" (ant. 胡言 or 胡語 ) is a historico-ethnographic term.

  This remained a very common way of referring to the Chinese language long after the Hàn Dynasty, as is clear from the Buddhist Tripitaka. (424 occurrences in CBETA.)

  T25n1512_p0835b29(05)║

  胡言般若波羅蜜。

  漢言智慧彼岸也

  T48n2023_p1095c25(00)║

  志曰。

  佛者。 Buddha

  漢言覺也。 is "the enlightened" in Hàn language"

  將以覺悟群生也。 He will bring enlightenment to the sentient beings.

  12. Wényán 文言 "literary Chinese" (ant. báihuà 白話 "plain vernacular") today refers to a modernised version of traditional classical Chinese, as used for example in letters. But in the Buddhist Tripitaka, for example, the phrase regularly refers to ornate Chinese, ornate formulations. Neither traditionally nor in modern times is 文言 used in counterdistinction to foreign languages: the contrast is with other varieties of Chinese.

  DC: 4. 別於白話的古漢語書面語。蔡元培《在國語傳習所的演說》： " 文言上還有例句，如 ' 爾無我詐，我無爾虞 ' 等。 "

  13. wényánwén 文言文 "literary Chinese writing" (ant. báihuàwén 白話文 ) refers to classical Chinese as it continues to be used in the introductions to books and in formal letter-writing.

  This is a twentieth century word, as far as I can see.

  14. báihuà-wén 白話文 "plain talk writing" (ant. wényánwén 文言文 ) is a term with a strong stylistic nuance.

  This is a twentieth century word.

  15. tōngyòngyǔ 通用語 "general use language".

  This is a twentieth century neologism designed to replace 普通話. The term has never achieved broad use.

  16. dàzhòngyǔ 大眾語 "mass language" is obsolete today.

  This is a politicised ideological concept stressing the universal use and popularity of the Chinese language as advocated by language politicians. It is a twentieth century political neologism.

  17. guówén 國文 "state writing" refers in a formal way to written Chinese.

  This is a twentieth century term mainly used in connection with educational politics.

  HD: 許地山《東野先生》： “ 這不是國文教科書底一課麼？ ”

  18. Hàn wén 漢文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Hàn (typically written) language"

  HD: 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "

  19. Zhōngguó wénzì 中國文字 "the Chinese (written) language"

  T49n2036_p0477a06(03)║　

  中國文字未通。蓋不可知也。

  R110_p0542b01(05)║

  偈語原必有韻譯以中國文字。則無可協。

  R110_p0542b09(00)║

  流入東土後。以中國文字經為尊稱。故亦稱經。

  20. Huá yán 華言 is an obsolete traditional term for Chinese that comes over 1200 times in Taisho Tripitaka.

  R150_p0541a 13(00)║

  剌麻者。乃西域之尊稱。

  譯華言為無上二字。

  R149_p0695a 12(00)║

  梵語阿修羅。亦云阿素洛。

  又云阿須倫。

  華言非天。

  R149_p0718b05(03)║

  梵語袈裟華言壞色衣。

  21. dōngtǔ Huáxiàyán 東土華夏言 "Chinese language in the eastern regions" is an ad hoc periphrastic expression which one might insist was never lexicalised, but it is perhaps worth recording just as well, if only in order to

  R059_p0119b04(00)║

  梵語。西天梵國語也。

  華言。東土華夏言也。

  譯者翻也。

  謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。

  22. Hàn'ér yányǔ 漢兒言語 "Hàn language" is a term that is current in Korean textbooks of colloquial Chinese, like the famous 老乞大 : “ 你是高麗人，卻怎麼漢兒言語說的好。 ” See also the article in 太田辰夫《漢語史通考 · 關於漢兒言語》

  23. Jìn wén 晉文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Jìn (typically written) language" is fairly rare, but clear examples are easily found:

  T50n2059_p0326c12(02)║

  還歸中夏。

  自燉煌至長安。

  沿路傳譯寫為晉文。

  24. Jìn yán 晉言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Jìn" is common indeed, but many examples can be read technically as "in Jìn this translates as". Not however in this example:

  於龜茲國金華祠。

  T14n0434_p0105ā6(01)║　

  演出此經。譯梵音為晉言。

  T33n1693_p0001ā7(01)║

  斯經似安世高譯。為晉言也。 (punctuation probably wrong!)

  25. Jìn yǔ 晉語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Jìn"

  T50n2059_p0329ā2(00)║

  手執梵文口宣晉語。

  T55n2145_p0072b24(03)║

  先誦本文。

  然後乃譯為晉語。

  26. Jìn yīn 晉音 "Jìn Dynasty speech"

  T14n0434_p0105á1(00)║

  沙門慧海者。通龜茲語。

  善解晉音。

  林復命使譯龜茲語為晉音。

  T50n2060_p0634á6(02)║

  外國語云阿耨菩提。

  晉音翻之無上大道。

  27. Qín yán 秦言 "Qín language> Chinese" is the standard way of providing Chinese translations for Sanskrit words in the Buddhist Tripitaka. (No less than 1132 examples in CBETA, but mostly formulaic, as in the following examples.)

  答曰。摩訶秦言大。 "maha is "big"in Chinese"

  T25n1509_p0383á2(03)║

  今問摩訶薩義。摩訶者秦言大。

  28. Qín yǔ 秦語 "Speech of the Qín > Chinese"

  In the Buddhist Tripitaka, this is a very formal term for Chinese, not very common. (Only 22 occurrences in CBETA)

  T26n1543_p0771b02(08)║

  梵本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千五百四言 ) 。

  秦語十九萬五千二百五十言。

  T51n2068_p0053c09(05)║

  什自手執胡經。

  口譯秦語曲從方言而趣不乖本。

  T51n2068_p0054á9(07)║

  什自執梵本口譯秦語。

  T55n2145_p0072b07(28)║

  胡本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千三百四言 ) 秦語十九萬五千二百五十言

  T55n2145_p0073c09(02)║

  胡本一萬一千七百五十二首盧長五字也。

  凡三十七萬六千六十四言也。

  秦語為十六五千九百七十五字。

  29. Táng wén 唐文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Táng (typically written) language"

  This is the standard way of referring to the written Chinese language in Buddhist texts of the Táng dynasty.

  R130_p0664b06(02)║

  以華言唐文刻釋氏經典

  T39n1797_p0803b21(10)║

  不得梵文依唐文得意亦同。

  T48n2025_p1160a24(08)║

  唐文多對偶當盡翻譯。

  T50n2060_p0614c17(05)║

  有天竺三藏大齎梵本擬譯唐文。

  R024_p0177a16(02)║　

  語精梵言。

  雖亦兼美唐文。

  乍來恐未盡善。

  30. Táng yán 唐言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Táng".

  1523 occurrences in CBETA. Occasionally, one wonders whether this does refer to Táng time Chinese whereas Hànyīn 漢音 does not:

  T20n1177Ap0724c02(01)║

  遂將得舊翻譯唐言漢音經本在寺。

  31. Táng yǔ 唐語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Táng"

  A fairly rare way of referring to the Chinese language in Táng Buddhist texts. (Only 18 occurrences in CBETA)

  R014_p0563a14(02)║

  印度罽賓皆未詳唐語。

  R036_p0985a16(18)║　　　　

  又多兩重怗文當知初依梵文後釋唐語

  T30n1579_p0283c07(05)║

  三藏法師玄奘。

  敬執梵文譯為唐語。

  32. Táng yīn 唐音 "Táng speech" is a regular expression for Táng Dynasty Chinese in the Buddhist Tripitaka.

  R036_p0584b13600)

  梵語本是兩名唐音無以甄別

  R066_p0717b08(01)║

  此偈乃是梵語訛言。

  傳者將為唐音正字。

  33. Tánghuà 唐話 "Táng talk" is a current Cantonese term for Chinese, and the famous intellectual 許地山 writes: 他說的雖是唐話，但是語格和腔調全是不對的。 But in this phrase, I am instructed by my teacher and friend Jiǎng Shàoyú, Táng refers not to the dynasty but to 唐山.

  34. Dà Táng yǔ 大唐語 "Speech of the Great Táng Dynasty" is rarely attested, but the word does exist:

  R150_p1055b17(00)║

  若僧雖是新羅人。却會大唐語。 Monk Ruò was a person from Xīnluó, but he spoke the language of the Great Táng Dynasty.

  35. Hàn 漢 is an abbreviation for Hànyǔ 漢語 currently used in Buddhist translation theory, but the word is not in itself a term for the Chinese language outside such technical contexts.

  T21n1293_p0378c15(02)║　

  翻梵為漢 Translate the Sanskrit into Chinese.

  R068_p0353b05(05)║

  梵是天竺之言。

  漢是此土之語。

  R133_p0623b09(07)║

  序以條列梵漢旨義。

  R005_p0007b03(02)║

  翻譯之家自有規准。 The specialists in translation have their own standards.

  若名梵漢共有。 If a term exists both in Sanskrit and in Chinese

  則敵對而翻。 than they just match the terms up in translation.

  36. Táng 唐 "language of the Táng Dynsasty.

  梵唐

  T54n2133Ap1196b12(02)║　

  一曰義淨撰梵語千字文。

  或名梵唐千字文。

  T55n2176_p1118a01(00)║　

  梵唐對譯阿彌陀經一卷 ( 仁 )

  This is the same as 梵唐語：

  T55n2176_p1118b20(00)║　

  梵唐語對註譯大佛頂真言一卷

  T55n2176_p1119c19(18)║

  梵唐對譯法花二十八品

  T55n2176_p1120a05(00)║　

  梵唐對譯金剛般若經二卷

  T55n2176_p1131a06(00)║　

  梵唐文字一卷

  37. Jìn 晉 "the language of the Jìn Dynasty.

  The term is rarely used to refer directly to the language, unlike the common Táng 唐. But examples do exist:

  T55n2157_p0795c08(08)║

  既學兼梵晉故譯義精允。

  38. nèidìhuà 內地話 refers to the language spoken on the Mainland, and the word is mostly used on Taiwan. This term represents an outsider's view on the Chinese language. (2.9 million hits in Google! This important word was brought to my attention by Jens Østergaard Petersen.)

  39. shénzhōu yǔ 神州語 "the language of our divine land" is quaint, nationalistically sentimental, and a rare way of referring to the Chinese language.

  beijing.kijiji.cn/á1221463.html:

  心中一暖，想到他居然會說神州語，正要說些甚麼，但一開口，嘴部動作牽動喉嚨，...

  40. zúyǔ 族語 "the national language (of the Chinese) is a borderline case because the term refers to national languages in general, and only by extension to Chinese in particular.

  42. Hàn dì zhī yán 漢地之言 "language of the Ha4n territory" is a marginal periphrastic expression which one should probably not regard as a lexicalised item. One could study such periphrastic expressions separately from the lexicalised vocabulary.

  R059_p0119b06(06)║

  謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。

  [43. jīngpiànzi 京片子 "Chinese as spoken in Peking" is a borderline case because it does refer to Peking speech, but not insofar as it is the standard for the whole of China. Colloquial examples of this sort could be multiplied...]

• WAY
  

  1. The general word for streets and roads is tú 塗／涂／途.

  2. The general word for an established way along which humans move conveniently in the landscape is lù 路, and this term covers all manner of large and wide roads as well as small paths of any kind. (For streets within cities see STREET)

  3. Dào 道, when used in its concrete meaning referring to a means of communication tends to refer to a larger line of communication, and the traditional claim is that the term refers to a road where two vehicles can pass each other. Thus the First Emperor called his Autobahns chí dào 馳道 and not chí lù 馳路.

  4. Jiē qú 街衢 refers to the highways of the land in a general way.

• FROM
  

  1. Yóu 由 focusses on the coming out from, and the reference is primarily to a place, but can also be to cause.

  2. Zì 自 focusses on initiation, and the reference is primarily to a time, but can also be to a place, and to the arrangement of an abstract series.

  3. Cóng 從 derives its meaning from "to follow", and the reference is primarily to a place, but it can also be to an origin or cause, much more rarely to a time.

  4. Yú 於 basically means "in relation to", and one of the specific meanings is "in separative relation to, from".

  5. Hū 乎 basically means "in relation to", and one of its rarer specific meanings is "in separative relation to, from".

  6. Dào 道 "by way of" may refer literally to a direction, but it may also refer more abstractly to a means. See USE.

• UNDERSTAND
  

  1. The standard current and word for understanding something and knowing how to do something is zhī 知 (ant. mèi 昧 "not have the foggiest idea").

  2. Míng 明 (ant. měng 蒙 "have very confused notions about") refers to incisive clarity of insight.

  3. Tōng 通 (ant. hūn 昏 "be confused about") refers to comprehensive and thorough familiarity with a subject.

  4. Yù 喻 / 諭 (ant. àn 闇 "be in the dark about") typically refers to clarity achieved on the basis of an effort of articulation.

  5. Chá 察 and shěn 審 (ant. mí 迷 "be all lost when it comes to") refer to incisive clarity of understanding coupled with great awareness of the details of a matter.

  6. Jīng 精 (mào 眊 / 耄 "be completely stupid with respect to") refers to a subtle and thorough understanding of something.

  7. Shí 識 refers to familiarity with something concrete, but the word also refers to simple awareness, especially when negated.

  8. Biàn 辨 / 辯 (ant. huò 惑 "be al confused about") refers to discriminating and highly articulate specialised, often professional knowledge about something.

  9. Jué 覺 and the rarer wù 悟 are inchoative and refer to the coming to understand something.

  10. Wēn 溫 refers to the resulting close familiarity after long acquaintance with a subject.

  11. Wén 聞 (ant. wèi zhī wén 未之聞 "have never heard/learnt about any such thing") is sometimes used as a resultative verb meaning "come to understand something because one has been informed of it". But this usage is limited to the idiom wén dào 聞道 "hear about the Way".

  12. Xī 悉 and jìn 盡 refer to presumed completeness in knowledge.

• JUSTICE
  

  1. The standard word for rectitude and justice is yì 義 "what is right and proper".

  2. Lǐ 理 may perhaps be taken to be the principle which justifies what is right and proper.

  3. Dào 道 can be taken to refer to the way of behaviour that conforms to what is right and proper.

  4. Gōng 公 (ant. piān 偏 ) refers to public-spirited and evenhanded justice, and sometimes this virtue is referred to by the binome gōng píng 公平.

• COSMIC FORCE
  

  1. The most general term for physical principles operative in the dynamics of natural processes is qì 氣.

  2. Yīn 陰 refers to the female, dark principle in Chinese naturalist and cosmological speculation.

  3. Yáng 陽 refers to the male, bright principle in Chinese naturalist and cosmological speculation.

  4. Dào 道 is sometimes used to refer to the quintessential material/energetic basis for cosmic development.

  5. Lǐ 理 is sometimes used as a general concept referring to all manner of basic cosmic forces.

• CROSSROADS
  

  1. Qú 衢 refers generally to an intersection of roads, either in a city or in the countryside, from which one can move in four or more directions, once in CC even nine directions.

  2. Chōng 衝 refers to such an intersection especially as a centre of communications.

  3. Jiē 街 is sometimes used to refer to a cross-road within a city.

  ERYA 一達謂之道路；二達謂之歧旁；三達謂之劇旁；四達謂之衢；五達謂之康；六達謂之莊；七達謂之劇驂；八達謂之崇期；九達謂之逵。 is a wonderful example of rationalisation in lexicography.

• CONFORM
  

  1. Perhaps the most general and the most current word describing conformity to a norm is shùn 順 (ant. nì 逆 "go against").

  2. Yóu 由 refers to conformity construed as a matter of taking something as one's starting point or point of orientation.

  3. Dào 道 refers to conformity construed as a matter of taking one's model to define the way of doing things for one.

  4. Yǐ 以 refers to conformity construed as a matter of availing oneself of something as an instrument or guideline.

  5. Yīn 因 refers to conformity construed as a matter of adapting to pre-existing models or rules.

  6. Yuán 緣 refers to conformity construed as a matter of following something attentively in all details as a guideline.

  7. Shǒu 守 refers to conformity construed as a matter of guarding a precedent or a tradition.

  8. Zhōu 周 and hé 合 (all ant. fǎn 反 "go against the model") refer to complete all-round conformity construed as overall identification with a model.

  9. Chèn 稱 refers to conformity construed as a matter of balancing one's actions against a standard.

  10. Yìng 應 and

  shì 適 refer to conformity construed as a matter of responding adequately to given facts.

  12. Cóng 從 and suí 隨 refer to conformity construed as a matter of following a lead.

  12. Tīng 聽 refers specifically to a superior acting in conformity with his inferior's suggestions.

• LEAD
  

  1. The current general term for leadership or guidance of any kind is dǎo 導 / 道.

  2. Shuài 率 / 帥 places stronger emphasis on leadership in a certain campaign than on general guidance.

  3. Jiāng 將 and yǐn 引 refer to leading an informal group, large or small, occasionally even a single person.

  4. Xiàng 相 refers specifically to leading or guiding the blind.

  5. Shuài 帥 refers specifically to leadership in a military campaign.

  6. Jiàng 將 refers to a formal formal military rank and leadership exercised by someone occupying that rank.

  7. Xiān 先 refers to leadership on the image of being at the head of a procession.

• SPEAK
  

  1. The most colourless and general way of referring to any act of saying attributed to any subject, no matter whether animate or inanimate, something is yuē 曰, and the verb introduces what poses as direct but can often be the summarising of such speech and even the summarising of the subject's opinion.

  2. Yán 言 is to speak up, propose, typically in public, and on one's own initiative, to maintain something, and the word can indroduce direct speech as well as occasionally very limited indirect speech.

  3. Yǔ 語 is to say something as part of typically informal conversation. Contrast yù 語 "tell, inform" in REPORT.

  4. Tán 談 refers to informal communicative talk, sometimes but not always with some pejorative connotation.

  5. Yún 云 is used of books as well as persons and tends to refer to what are typically construed as authoritative acts of saying, and the word often has to be taken figuratively as "run as follows". (Note the perfectly regular contrast 曰 / 云 in MOUZI.)

  6. Wèi 謂 is to say or predicate something of someone. See also MEAN.

  7. Cí 辭 is primarily an act of careful articulation and rhetorical formulation.

  8. Dào 道 "speak of with authority, speak of adequately; quote" often involves quotation or especially serious discussion of important points, or the relating of important evidence.

  9. Jǔ 舉 is a technical term referring to the bringing up of a subject, and the subject of this verb is always a person, not a text.

  10. Chēng 稱 refers in a rather formal historian's style to the making of statements and the applying of terminology. See also NAME.

Word relations
• Inconsist: (METHOD)俗/VULGAR The most general current word for ordinariness or vulgarity is sú 俗 (ant. yǎ 雅 "elegant"), and the basic parameter of judging something as sú 俗is relative status in the hierarchy. 1 Attribution
• Object: (WAY)借/BORROW The general term for borrowing anything is jiè 借. 1 Attribution
• Object: (WAY)假/BORROW Jiǎ 假 emphasises the termporary aspect of borrowing. 5 Attributions
• Object: (WAY)得/ACHIEVE The current general word for successfully completed action on one's own behalf or in one's own interest is dé 得 "manage to" (ant. shī 失 "fail in, get wrong" and ant.* bù néng 不能 "not manage to"). [DIFFICULT], [SELFISH], [STANDARD]; [VERB] 3 Attributions
• Object: (METHOD)行/ACT The current general word for any deliberate action one may be held morally and/or administratively responsible for is xíng 行 (ant. zhǐ 止 "decide not to take action"). The nominal entries have the old reading xìng. [COMMENDATORY!], [GENERAL], [HABITUAL], [RESPONSIBLE] 1 Attribution
• Object: (METHOD)順/CONFORM Perhaps the most general and the most current word describing conformity to a norm is shùn 順 (ant. nì 逆 "go against"). 1 Attribution
• Object: (METHOD)學/STUDY The dominant word is xué 學 (ant. jiào 教 "train teach")which refers primarily to studying or training under another person, and secondarily to the learning by heart texts. Very often, the word retains a tinge of immitation. 3 Attributions
• Object: (METHOD)知/UNDERSTAND The standard current and word for understanding something and knowing how to do something is zhī 知 (ant. mèi 昧 "not have the foggiest idea") 1 Attribution
• Object: (METHOD)得/OBTAIN The current general and highly abstract verb for obtaining any form of possession of anything abstract or concrete is dé 得 (ant. shī 失 "lose inadvertently"). 1 Attribution
• Epithet: (WAY)遠/DISTANT The clearly dominant term for distance in general is yuǎn 遠 (ant. jìn 近 "close"). 1 Attribution
• Epithet: (METHOD)天/GOD Tiān 天 refers to the - often personified or semi-personified - God of Heaven. 2 Attributions
• Epithet: (COSMIC FORCE)一/ONE The general word for one is yī 一. 1 Attribution
• Epithet: (METHOD)一/ONE The general word for one is yī 一. 1 Attribution
• Contrast: (WAY)徑/PATH Perhaps the most general term for a path is jìng 徑, but the word refers specifically to a shortcut, whereas the rarer xī 蹊 refers more generally to any path that has been trampled up, by humans or by animals. 2 Attributions
• Contrast: (WAY)德/VIRTUE The current general term for salient features and principles of charismatic moral integrity and generosity is dé 德, when used as a term of ethical evalutation; but this word has many other philosophically important meanings. 3 Attributions
• Contrast: (METHOD)數/METHOD
• Contrast: (METHOD)理/PRINCIPLE Lǐ 理 refers to inherent structuring patterns of things. 2 Attributions
• Contrast: (METHOD)術/METHOD The most general word for method or technique is shù 術, and the professional technique here referred is typically publicly accessible.
• Contrast: (METHOD)命/FATE The current word referring to what is fated, determined or decreed by Heaven, and thus invested with unquestionable moral or metaphysical authority is mìng 命, sometimes expanded to tiān mìng 天命. 1 Attribution
• Contrast: (METHOD)事/ACT Shì 事 (ant.* xián 閒 "take it easy") primarily focusses on action as part of the fulfilment of a duty imposed by one's station in life or a task one has set oneself. [PRESCRIBED], [PUBLIC!], [RESPONSIBLE] 1 Attribution
• Assoc: (PRINCIPLE)理/PRINCIPLE Lǐ 理 refers to inherent structuring patterns of things. 4 Attributions
• Assoc: (METHOD)德/VIRTUE The current general term for salient features and principles of charismatic moral integrity and generosity is dé 德, when used as a term of ethical evalutation; but this word has many other philosophically important meanings. 3 Attributions
• Assoc: (METHOD)術/METHOD The most general word for method or technique is shù 術, and the professional technique here referred is typically publicly accessible.
• Assoc: (WAY)路/WAY The general word for an established way along which humans move conveniently in the landscape is lù 路, and this term covers all manner of large and wide roads as well as small paths of any kind. (For streets within cities see STREET) 5 Attributions
• Synon: (WAY)塗 / 涂 / 途/WAY The general word for streets and roads is tú 塗／涂／途. 1 Attribution
• Oppos: (METHOD)身/PERSON Shēn 身 regularly refers to the embodied person, as something to be cultivated, and as something to be morally careful about, but the word is originally widely used to refer to the physical body as such being at times hard to distinguish from the figurative use discussed in this group. The word is very often reflexive. 2 Attributions
• Oppos: (METHOD)祿/SALARY The general word for apanages, emoluments or salaries received by any person of high status is lù 祿. 1 Attribution
• Oppos: (METHOD)理/PRINCIPLE Lǐ 理 refers to inherent structuring patterns of things. 1 Attribution
• Oppos: (METHOD)命/FATE The current word referring to what is fated, determined or decreed by Heaven, and thus invested with unquestionable moral or metaphysical authority is mìng 命, sometimes expanded to tiān mìng 天命. 1 Attribution