Taxonomy of meanings for 知:
- zhī 反切： 陟離； 聲調： 平； 廣韻：【覺也欲也陟離切六 】
- UNDERSTAND
- vtoNinchoativeget to understand N properly
- nabactread zhì: display of knowledge
- nabmetaphysicalread zhì: understanding (interpreted as an agent)
- nabpsychunderstanding, cognition; level of understanding (possibly needs to be read in the fourth tone in this meaning)
- nabpositiveread zhì: proper (empathetic etc) understanding;
- viactdisplay knowledge; have the proper understanding of things
- vichangeascertain the facts properly; come to understand the facts properly
- vipsychunderstand things properly; understand something indeterminate properly
- vt(oN)internalise; understand the contextually determinate object properly
- vt(oN)inchoativehave come to understand/internalise the contextually determinate thing
- vt+prep+Nhave proper understanding of
- vtoNperfectivefully internalise; understand properly; understand and respect properly; be sure of the workings (of something); understand the ins and outs of
- vtoNpassiveget properly known, get found out; become well-known; get properly understood
- vtoNreflexive.自understand (oneself); know where one is;
- vtoNreflexive.己understand (oneself) properly, understand one's own affairs properly
- vtoNPab{S}know how S, understand that S; understand why S
- vtoNPab{S}inchoativecome to understand that S
- vtoSunderstand that S
- vt[oN]understand things; understand what is going on; have any idea of what is going on (often negated)
- nab(post-N)psychologicalread zhī: the contextually determinate N's understandingCH
- nab[post-N]psychologicalone's understandingCH
- vt+V[0]modalunderstand that one should VLZ
- vtoNabunderstand/internalise the abstract object NabCH
- vtoS{NOMINAL}know that a subject is N{PRED}CH
- practical>zhī ABLE
- vt+V[0]be intellectually capable to V; understand how to, know how to V; have the good sense to; know the importance of Ving
- vtoNbe intellectually capable of Nab
- as distinct from> DISTINGUISH
- vtoNbe able to distinguish 不知五穀 "be unable to tell the five sorts of grain from one-another"
- vtoNmiddle voicebe adequately distinguishedCH
- evaluative> APPRECIATE
- vt(oN)properly recognize the real quality of
- vtoNpassivebe recognised for one's worthCH
- vtoNappreciate, see the value ofCH
- passive> WELL-KNOWN
- viinchoativehave come to be well-known; get to be ascertained
- vtoNpassivebe well-known
- positivelyely> RESPECT
- vtoNappreciate properly, recognise (a person for his true value); repect properly for what a person is
- vtoNpassivebe appreciated properly, be respected properly; be understood properly
- object> FRIEND
- vtoNunderstand well so as to be an admiring friend of (as in 知己)
- n(post-N)friend
- presupposing as true> KNOW
- nabstativeknowing something; knowing things; knowledge of things; discursive knowledge, conceptual knowledge
- vt(oN)know it, know anything about the contextually determinate thing
- vt(oS)be aware of a contextually determinate thing; be sure of it
- vt[oN]know what is going on
- vtoNknow, be sure of; know all about
- vtoNawarenessbe aware of (and know the importance of) MOVE TO AWARE???
- vtoNinchoativeget to know; come to ascertain. get to be sure of, ascertain; get wind of; come to know about
- vtoNN=humanknow the identity of N; know of; recognize the identity of
- vtoNpassivebe known; be ascertained
- vtoNPab{S}know that (S); (not) know whether (S)
- vtoNPab{S}psychknow that S is true of (oneself)
- vtoSknow that S; be sure that S
- vtoSinchoativecome to understand that S, become aware that S
- vtoSS=complementknow for sure that (the SUBJECT PREDICATES)
- vtt+N1{PIVOT}.+N2{PRED}psychknow that (oneself) is an N2
- vttoN.+V[0]psychknow oneself to V
- vttoN.+V[0]psychknow that one V-s 知己有罪
- vttoNPab{S}psych自知其益富know that S is true of one
- vt+V[0]how-toknow how to; know how to and that one must; know that one should; be an expert in
- vt+V[0]thatknow that the understood object V-s
- vtoNjudgementalknow how to assess properly, be able to judge professionallyCH
- vtoNPabbe aware of the constellation NPabCH
- not focussing reasons> AWARE
- vtoNPab{S}be aware that S
- nabpsychconsciousness, awareness
- vt[oN]be conscious and aware of things
- vt+V[0]understand that one V-s; be aware that one V-s
- vtoNinchoativebecome aware of; come to know of; come to feel
- vtoNpsychbe aware of what is happening to (oneself) [SOME EXAMPLES HAVE TO BE MOVED HERE FROM "UNDERSTAND"]
- vtoNsensationhave a sensation of, feel
- vtoSbe aware that S
- vtoSinchoativecome to be aware of
- vtoNstativebe aware of N/of what N is like, after negataions: have any idea of
- vt+V[0]inchoativebecome aware that one is V-ingCH
- vt(oN)be aware of the contextually determinate thing or situationDS
- vt(oS)be aware of the contextually determinate fact of SCH
- vtoNPab{S}inchoativebecome aware that SCH
- in advance> PREDICT
- vtoNfactiveforesee before the eventCH
- vtoNpassivebe foreseenDS
- UNDERSTAND
- zhì 反切： 知義； 聲調： 去； 廣韻：【知也又姓晉有智伯知義切三 】
- INTELLIGENT
- vibe intellectually competent; intellectually excellent
- nab[.post-N]disposition, N=humanread zhì: intellect; intellectual competence, professional competence; intelligence, intellectual capacity
- vadNintellectually competent; intellectually excellent; intellectual
- visubj=nonhumanbe intelligent or clever
- vipsychbe properly or normally intelligent
- vichangebecome more clever, become more intelligent
- vtoNputative.reflex.自consider (oneself) as intelligent
- vtoNcausativecause (oneself) to be intelligent
- n[adN]subjectthe intelligent (pervasively difficult to distinguish from the wise)
- viactact with skill
- nab(.post-N)organone's intelligence; one's understanding; one's cognitive capacitiesCH
- vadNN=nonhumanclever; highly elaborated;DS
- vt+V(0)be intelligent enough toCH
- vigradedmost intelligentLZ
- nab[.post-N]:adVin one's intelligence, with regard to one's intelligenceLZ
- nabgraded capacity intelligence DS
- vtoNgradedbe more intelligent than NCH
- v[adN1.]adN2belonging to an intellectualy competent personDS
- WISE
- n[adN]nonreferentialthe wise, the competent; those who know
- vtoNgradedregard as wise
- vtoNmiddle voicebe regarded as wise
- n[adN]subject=indefinitean intelligent or competent person
- vibe wise (of persons or actions)
- vtoNputative.reflex.自consider (oneself) as wise
- nabpsychwisdom; intellectual prowess. BUDDH: perfect insight, wisdom skr. prajñā
- n|vadNof wisdom/wise 智士,智謀
- nabgradedsometimes: degree of wisdom 愚人之智
- nabnegativewisdom (as something to be rejected because insufficient)
- nab.post-V{NUM}kinds of wisdom; parts of relevant knowledge
- v[adN]the wiseCH
- nabgeneralcommon senseCH
- vadN=智 wiseCH
- nab(post-N)the wisdom of the contextually determinate NCH
- viappear vibe deemed to vi; be generally taken to be vi,CH
- INTELLIGENT
Additional information about 知
說文解字: 【知】，詞也。从口、从矢。 〔小徐本「矢」上無「从」。〕 【陟离切】
- Criteria
- ABLE
[ABSOLUTE/GRADED]
[ARCHAIC/CURRENT]
[DIFFICULT/EASY]
[ENDOGENIC/EXOGENIC]
[EMOTIONAL/UNEMOTIONAL]
[INCIDENTAL/INHERENT]
[INNATE/ACQUIRED]
[LASTING!/TEMPORARY]
[PHYSICAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL]
[PRACTICAL/THEORETICAL]
1. The commonest word is néng 能 "have an inherent capacity for, have the personal ability to".
[CURRENT], [ENDOGENIC], [GRADED], [LASTING]
2. Kě yǐ 可以 "be in an objective position to, have the possibility to".
[ABSOLUTE], [CURRENT], [EXOGENIC], [TEMPORARY!]
3. Zú yǐ 足以 emphasises sufficiency of conditions necessary to get something done.
[CURRENT], [GRADED], [INHERENT], [PHYSICAL]
4. Kè 克 typically comes to emphasise the ability to do something difficult in post-archaic times, but the word was equivalent to néng 能 in early texts.
[ABSOLUTE], [ARCHAIC], [INCIDENTAL], [TEMPORARY], [PHYSICAL]
5. Rén 任 emphasises a general qualification to achieve something worth achieving and not obviously easy to achieve.
[ABSOLUTE], [CURRENT], [DIFFICULT], [ENDOGENIC], [TEMPORARY]
6. Kān 堪 typically refers to the ability to do something others might not be willing or psychologically able to do.
[ABSOLUTE], [CURRENT], [DIFFICULT], [EMOTIONAL], [ENDOGENIC], [PSYCHOLOGICAL]
7. Jì 技 "expertise, know-how" refers to the talents for crafts and the like, and the word is not normally used as a verb. See SKILL.
[ACQUIRED], [CURRENT], [DIFFICULT], [GRADED], [LASTING], [PRACTICAL]
8. Lì 力 "strength" is sometimes used to refer to an ability to do something which in some sense requires strength.
9. Zhī 知 refers to the intellectual ability to do something, especially to do something that is not intellectually trivial.
10. Jì néng 技能 refers to a lasting acquired skill.
NB: Dé 得 "cope, show an ability to do something by actually doing it" is an achievement verb and does not belong in this group. See COPE.
- TEACH
1. The current general word for training, instructing, and disciplining others is jiào 教 (ant. xué 學 "study") and the standard main aim of jiào 教 is unquestioning obedience, professional skill, and intellectual conformity to the standard set by the teacher, and the word connotes use of authority and sometimes even coercion. The primary aim of jiào 教 is action conforming to a standard, and the word is commonly nominalised.
2. Huì 誨 (ant. xí 習 "study persistently") refers to systematic and persistent efforts to teach and inculcate intellectual or practical skills ( 誨之琴 "taught him to play the zither") and moral understanding of students ( 誨女知之 "I will teach you so you understand"), and the word never implies coercion or any threat of force. Huì 誨 can be mutual, or refer to equals teaching equals, even subordinates teaching superiors 諫誨 "remonstrate with and instruct". The word is not commonly nominalised. The primary aim of huì 誨 is understanding.
3. Huà 化 refers to successful disciplining and teaching, typically on a large social scale. See INFLUENCE
4. Qǐ 啟 and fā 發 refer to the opening up of new intellectual and moral dimensions for others.
5. Xùn 訓 refers in a rather abstract way to formal strict instruction and training aimed primarily at professional skill.
6. Zhào 詔 refers to instruction by means of useful information or warning.
7. Fēng 風 is occasionally used to refer to teaching by example.
8. Liàn 練 refers specifically to military training and only occasionally to other forms of drill.
9. Dào 道 refers to the content of what is taught, and is largely restricted to postnominal position, as in 儒道 "Confucian teaching".
- CHINESE LANGUAGE
1. guānhuà 官話 "Mandarin" is obsolete, and its traditional antonym was xiāngyǔ 鄉語 "local speech".
From Míng Dynasty times, this was a current word for the common vernacular language used by administrative staff of any kind throughout China.
DC: 明何良俊《四友齋叢說 ‧ 史十一》： " 雅宜不喜作鄉語，每發口必官話。 "
2. báihuà 白話 "plain speech, vernacular" (as opposed to wényán 文言 )
This is a modern word referring to an easily accessible written version of the Chinese language. In classical contexts or early vernacular contexts the expression always seems to refer to "empty talk" rather than the vernacular language.
3. guóyǔ 國語 "national language" (ant. wàiyǔ 外語 ) (pre-1950ies and Taiwan)
A word that continues to be in increasing common use even in Mainland China today, and which is standard in places like Malaysia or Singapore, as well as in Taiwan.
4. zhōngguóyǔ 中國語 "language of China" (ant. wàiguóyǔ 外國語 )
Current Japanese way of writing the Japanese word for the Chinese language, but the expression has a long history in China, the first attested use being in Yáng Xióng's Model Sayings of the first century BC.
5. pǔtōnghuà 普通話 "common language" (Mainland China) (ant. dìfāngyǔ 地方語, fāngyán 方言 "dialect (not in the ancient meaning)")
This is a very common modern expression which corresponds to Greek koinē, and the word is always used in counterdistinction to (often mutually incomprehensible) dialects. The word has a rather political flair.
6. Hànyǔ 漢語 "language of the Hàn people" (should include all dialects, but is often used otherwise)
This is the most current word for the Chinese language as opposed to other 族語 "national languages". The word is very current in the Buddhist Tripitaka, but it is also attested elsewhere 庾信《奉和法筵應詔》： " 佛影胡人記，經文漢語翻。 ". The term is also attested in 世說新語.
7. Zhōngguóhuà 中國話 "Chinese speech" (includes all dialects)
This word is always used in counterdistinction to foreign languages. It has become current in international contexts in nineteenth century novels.
8. Zhōngwén 中文 "Chinese (typically written) language" (ant. wàiwén 外文, often icludes speech: 會說中文 )
This word is already attested in the medieval 搜神記, where it refers to the written language. In Modern Standard Chinese this is a very common way of referring to Chinese as opposed to foreign languages, and as a subject in school curricula.
9. Huáyǔ 華語 "Chinese talk" (used mainly in Singapore, Hong Kong etc.)
This word has a long history in Buddhist texts, and it is also already attested in 劉知幾《史通 ‧ 言語》： "... 必諱彼夷音，變成華語.
10. Hànyīn 漢音 "Han-Chinese sounds" refers to the Chinese language in a poetic style. Sanskrit is currently referred to as 梵音.
HD sub verbo 漢文： 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "
HD: 2. 指漢語。南朝宋朱廣之《咨顧道士＜夷夏論＞》： " 想茲漢音，流入彼國。 "
老子漢人也。
新修科分六學僧傳 R133_p0714a04(02)║
胡蕃國也。土地不同。則言音亦異。當其化胡成佛之際。為作漢音耶。作蕃音耶。苟以漢音。則蕃國有所不解。以蕃音。則此經之至。宜須翻譯。
11. Hàn yán 漢言 "Hàn language, language of the Hàn Dynasty> Chinese" (ant. 胡言 or 胡語 ) is a historico-ethnographic term.
This remained a very common way of referring to the Chinese language long after the Hàn Dynasty, as is clear from the Buddhist Tripitaka. (424 occurrences in CBETA.)
T25n1512_p0835b29(05)║
胡言般若波羅蜜。
漢言智慧彼岸也
T48n2023_p1095c25(00)║
志曰。
佛者。 Buddha
漢言覺也。 is "the enlightened" in Hàn language"
將以覺悟群生也。 He will bring enlightenment to the sentient beings.
12. Wényán 文言 "literary Chinese" (ant. báihuà 白話 "plain vernacular") today refers to a modernised version of traditional classical Chinese, as used for example in letters. But in the Buddhist Tripitaka, for example, the phrase regularly refers to ornate Chinese, ornate formulations. Neither traditionally nor in modern times is 文言 used in counterdistinction to foreign languages: the contrast is with other varieties of Chinese.
DC: 4. 別於白話的古漢語書面語。蔡元培《在國語傳習所的演說》： " 文言上還有例句，如 ' 爾無我詐，我無爾虞 ' 等。 "
13. wényánwén 文言文 "literary Chinese writing" (ant. báihuàwén 白話文 ) refers to classical Chinese as it continues to be used in the introductions to books and in formal letter-writing.
This is a twentieth century word, as far as I can see.
14. báihuà-wén 白話文 "plain talk writing" (ant. wényánwén 文言文 ) is a term with a strong stylistic nuance.
This is a twentieth century word.
15. tōngyòngyǔ 通用語 "general use language".
This is a twentieth century neologism designed to replace 普通話. The term has never achieved broad use.
16. dàzhòngyǔ 大眾語 "mass language" is obsolete today.
This is a politicised ideological concept stressing the universal use and popularity of the Chinese language as advocated by language politicians. It is a twentieth century political neologism.
17. guówén 國文 "state writing" refers in a formal way to written Chinese.
This is a twentieth century term mainly used in connection with educational politics.
HD: 許地山《東野先生》： “ 這不是國文教科書底一課麼？ ”
18. Hàn wén 漢文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Hàn (typically written) language"
HD: 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "
19. Zhōngguó wénzì 中國文字 "the Chinese (written) language"
T49n2036_p0477a06(03)║
中國文字未通。蓋不可知也。
R110_p0542b01(05)║
偈語原必有韻譯以中國文字。則無可協。
R110_p0542b09(00)║
流入東土後。以中國文字經為尊稱。故亦稱經。
20. Huá yán 華言 is an obsolete traditional term for Chinese that comes over 1200 times in Taisho Tripitaka.
R150_p0541a 13(00)║
剌麻者。乃西域之尊稱。
譯華言為無上二字。
R149_p0695a 12(00)║
梵語阿修羅。亦云阿素洛。
又云阿須倫。
華言非天。
R149_p0718b05(03)║
梵語袈裟華言壞色衣。
21. dōngtǔ Huáxiàyán 東土華夏言 "Chinese language in the eastern regions" is an ad hoc periphrastic expression which one might insist was never lexicalised, but it is perhaps worth recording just as well, if only in order to
R059_p0119b04(00)║
梵語。西天梵國語也。
華言。東土華夏言也。
譯者翻也。
謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。
22. Hàn'ér yányǔ 漢兒言語 "Hàn language" is a term that is current in Korean textbooks of colloquial Chinese, like the famous 老乞大 : “ 你是高麗人，卻怎麼漢兒言語說的好。 ” See also the article in 太田辰夫《漢語史通考 · 關於漢兒言語》
23. Jìn wén 晉文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Jìn (typically written) language" is fairly rare, but clear examples are easily found:
T50n2059_p0326c12(02)║
還歸中夏。
自燉煌至長安。
沿路傳譯寫為晉文。
24. Jìn yán 晉言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Jìn" is common indeed, but many examples can be read technically as "in Jìn this translates as". Not however in this example:
於龜茲國金華祠。
T14n0434_p0105ā6(01)║
演出此經。譯梵音為晉言。
T33n1693_p0001ā7(01)║
斯經似安世高譯。為晉言也。 (punctuation probably wrong!)
25. Jìn yǔ 晉語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Jìn"
T50n2059_p0329ā2(00)║
手執梵文口宣晉語。
T55n2145_p0072b24(03)║
先誦本文。
然後乃譯為晉語。
26. Jìn yīn 晉音 "Jìn Dynasty speech"
T14n0434_p0105á1(00)║
沙門慧海者。通龜茲語。
善解晉音。
林復命使譯龜茲語為晉音。
T50n2060_p0634á6(02)║
外國語云阿耨菩提。
晉音翻之無上大道。
27. Qín yán 秦言 "Qín language> Chinese" is the standard way of providing Chinese translations for Sanskrit words in the Buddhist Tripitaka. (No less than 1132 examples in CBETA, but mostly formulaic, as in the following examples.)
答曰。摩訶秦言大。 "maha is "big"in Chinese"
T25n1509_p0383á2(03)║
今問摩訶薩義。摩訶者秦言大。
28. Qín yǔ 秦語 "Speech of the Qín > Chinese"
In the Buddhist Tripitaka, this is a very formal term for Chinese, not very common. (Only 22 occurrences in CBETA)
T26n1543_p0771b02(08)║
梵本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千五百四言 ) 。
秦語十九萬五千二百五十言。
T51n2068_p0053c09(05)║
什自手執胡經。
口譯秦語曲從方言而趣不乖本。
T51n2068_p0054á9(07)║
什自執梵本口譯秦語。
T55n2145_p0072b07(28)║
胡本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千三百四言 ) 秦語十九萬五千二百五十言
T55n2145_p0073c09(02)║
胡本一萬一千七百五十二首盧長五字也。
凡三十七萬六千六十四言也。
秦語為十六五千九百七十五字。
29. Táng wén 唐文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Táng (typically written) language"
This is the standard way of referring to the written Chinese language in Buddhist texts of the Táng dynasty.
R130_p0664b06(02)║
以華言唐文刻釋氏經典
T39n1797_p0803b21(10)║
不得梵文依唐文得意亦同。
T48n2025_p1160a24(08)║
唐文多對偶當盡翻譯。
T50n2060_p0614c17(05)║
有天竺三藏大齎梵本擬譯唐文。
R024_p0177a16(02)║
語精梵言。
雖亦兼美唐文。
乍來恐未盡善。
30. Táng yán 唐言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Táng".
1523 occurrences in CBETA. Occasionally, one wonders whether this does refer to Táng time Chinese whereas Hànyīn 漢音 does not:
T20n1177Ap0724c02(01)║
遂將得舊翻譯唐言漢音經本在寺。
31. Táng yǔ 唐語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Táng"
A fairly rare way of referring to the Chinese language in Táng Buddhist texts. (Only 18 occurrences in CBETA)
R014_p0563a14(02)║
印度罽賓皆未詳唐語。
R036_p0985a16(18)║
又多兩重怗文當知初依梵文後釋唐語
T30n1579_p0283c07(05)║
三藏法師玄奘。
敬執梵文譯為唐語。
32. Táng yīn 唐音 "Táng speech" is a regular expression for Táng Dynasty Chinese in the Buddhist Tripitaka.
R036_p0584b13600)
梵語本是兩名唐音無以甄別
R066_p0717b08(01)║
此偈乃是梵語訛言。
傳者將為唐音正字。
33. Tánghuà 唐話 "Táng talk" is a current Cantonese term for Chinese, and the famous intellectual 許地山 writes: 他說的雖是唐話，但是語格和腔調全是不對的。 But in this phrase, I am instructed by my teacher and friend Jiǎng Shàoyú, Táng refers not to the dynasty but to 唐山.
34. Dà Táng yǔ 大唐語 "Speech of the Great Táng Dynasty" is rarely attested, but the word does exist:
R150_p1055b17(00)║
若僧雖是新羅人。却會大唐語。 Monk Ruò was a person from Xīnluó, but he spoke the language of the Great Táng Dynasty.
35. Hàn 漢 is an abbreviation for Hànyǔ 漢語 currently used in Buddhist translation theory, but the word is not in itself a term for the Chinese language outside such technical contexts.
T21n1293_p0378c15(02)║
翻梵為漢 Translate the Sanskrit into Chinese.
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梵是天竺之言。
漢是此土之語。
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序以條列梵漢旨義。
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翻譯之家自有規准。 The specialists in translation have their own standards.
若名梵漢共有。 If a term exists both in Sanskrit and in Chinese
則敵對而翻。 than they just match the terms up in translation.
36. Táng 唐 "language of the Táng Dynsasty.
梵唐
T54n2133Ap1196b12(02)║
一曰義淨撰梵語千字文。
或名梵唐千字文。
T55n2176_p1118a01(00)║
梵唐對譯阿彌陀經一卷 ( 仁 )
This is the same as 梵唐語：
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梵唐語對註譯大佛頂真言一卷
T55n2176_p1119c19(18)║
梵唐對譯法花二十八品
T55n2176_p1120a05(00)║
梵唐對譯金剛般若經二卷
T55n2176_p1131a06(00)║
梵唐文字一卷
37. Jìn 晉 "the language of the Jìn Dynasty.
The term is rarely used to refer directly to the language, unlike the common Táng 唐. But examples do exist:
T55n2157_p0795c08(08)║
既學兼梵晉故譯義精允。
38. nèidìhuà 內地話 refers to the language spoken on the Mainland, and the word is mostly used on Taiwan. This term represents an outsider's view on the Chinese language. (2.9 million hits in Google! This important word was brought to my attention by Jens Østergaard Petersen.)
39. shénzhōu yǔ 神州語 "the language of our divine land" is quaint, nationalistically sentimental, and a rare way of referring to the Chinese language.
beijing.kijiji.cn/á1221463.html:
心中一暖，想到他居然會說神州語，正要說些甚麼，但一開口，嘴部動作牽動喉嚨，...
40. zúyǔ 族語 "the national language (of the Chinese) is a borderline case because the term refers to national languages in general, and only by extension to Chinese in particular.
42. Hàn dì zhī yán 漢地之言 "language of the Ha4n territory" is a marginal periphrastic expression which one should probably not regard as a lexicalised item. One could study such periphrastic expressions separately from the lexicalised vocabulary.
R059_p0119b06(06)║
謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。
[43. jīngpiànzi 京片子 "Chinese as spoken in Peking" is a borderline case because it does refer to Peking speech, but not insofar as it is the standard for the whole of China. Colloquial examples of this sort could be multiplied...]
- WHY
1. The most current general word for "why" is probably xī 奚.
2. Hé yǐ 何以 typically asks for a reason in the form of a purpose, but the word can also ask for a good intellectual reason, as in hé yǐ zhī zhī 何以知之 "how do you know".
3. Hú 胡 is a dialect word which often asks generally for reasons and is hard to distinguish semantically from xī 奚.
4. Hé 盍 "why not" is a contracted form of hé bù 何不.
- FRIEND
1. The most general current word for a friend is yǒu 友 (ant. dí 敵 "enemy"), and the specific nuance indicated by this word is that of a commonality of feelings and interests, although it must be noted that the etymological link of the word is with the notion of "help", and in pre-SHI times the word tended to refer to cooperating associates rather than friends.
2. Péng 朋 typically refers to a person of similar educational background and a similar political or social agenda.
3. Dǎng 黨 refers to group of péng 朋 pursuing a common aim, and the word is normally derogatory in meaning.
4. Bàn 伴 and lu# 侶 refer to a companion during a specified period of time.
5. Pǐ 匹 and chóu 儔 refer to a person of similar professional or social background who for this reason has connections with one.
6. Jiù 舊, gù rén 故人, gù zhī 故知, and jiù gù 舊故 (all ant. shēng rén 生人 "stranger") refer to old acquaintances linked together by common experiences in the distant past.
7. Zhī yīn 知音 refers to person who has a proper sense for the special qualities of another in such a way that he is linked to him by deep bonds of spiritual friendship.
8. Hǎo 好 often refers to relations of friendship and good-will between states and communities, but also between individuals.
- RESPECT
1. The current general word for typically public respectful attitudes and actions is jìng 敬 (ant. màn 慢 "fail to show proper respect for").
2. Gōng 恭 (ant. jù 倨 "behave in an informal impolite way") refers specifically to private proper polite and respectful attitudes shown to a deserving person.
3. Zūn 尊 (ant. bǐ 鄙 "consider as not worthy of any veneration or respect") refers to psychological public or private respect for someone in a very exalted social, cultural, religious and/or political position, and the degree of public respect is much greater that that in jìng 敬 and reaches into the past to ancestors.
4. Chóng 崇 and zōng 宗 refers to distant and typically religious veneration of a spirit or person very highly regarded. SHI 靡神不宗 "there are no spirits which we have not honoured"
5. Lǐ 禮 (ant. màn 慢 "treat without proper ritual respect") refers to a proper show of public demonstrative respect for someone on the part of a host or a superior.
6. Wèi 畏 (ant. xiá 狎 "treat without the proper respect due to someone in high position, treat with improper familiarity") refers to awe-struck respect for a person in authority.
7. Lóng 隆 typically refers to due diligent respect for abstract values.
8. Qīn 欽 is an archaic courtly word referring to formal conformity with the rules of polite respect for superiors on public occasions.
9. Zhī 知 focusses on proper appreciation of a person, accompanied by recognition of that person's worth.
- WELL-KNOWN
1. The dominant general term for any kind of reputation, god or bad, is míng 名.
2. Shēng 聲 refers specifically to notoriety in so far as it is the subject of public discussion.
3. The specific general term for a high reputation is yù 譽, often in the combination míng yù 名譽.
4. Wàng 望 is primarily public respect for a prominent political or intellectual leader.
5. Wén 聞 refer to being well-known and/or notorious for anything good or bad.
6. Zhī 知 refers to being well-known and/or notorious for anything good or bad.
- UNDERSTAND
1. The standard current and word for understanding something and knowing how to do something is zhī 知 (ant. mèi 昧 "not have the foggiest idea").
2. Míng 明 (ant. měng 蒙 "have very confused notions about") refers to incisive clarity of insight.
3. Tōng 通 (ant. hūn 昏 "be confused about") refers to comprehensive and thorough familiarity with a subject.
4. Yù 喻 / 諭 (ant. àn 闇 "be in the dark about") typically refers to clarity achieved on the basis of an effort of articulation.
5. Chá 察 and shěn 審 (ant. mí 迷 "be all lost when it comes to") refer to incisive clarity of understanding coupled with great awareness of the details of a matter.
6. Jīng 精 (mào 眊 / 耄 "be completely stupid with respect to") refers to a subtle and thorough understanding of something.
7. Shí 識 refers to familiarity with something concrete, but the word also refers to simple awareness, especially when negated.
8. Biàn 辨 / 辯 (ant. huò 惑 "be al confused about") refers to discriminating and highly articulate specialised, often professional knowledge about something.
9. Jué 覺 and the rarer wù 悟 are inchoative and refer to the coming to understand something.
10. Wēn 溫 refers to the resulting close familiarity after long acquaintance with a subject.
11. Wén 聞 (ant. wèi zhī wén 未之聞 "have never heard/learnt about any such thing") is sometimes used as a resultative verb meaning "come to understand something because one has been informed of it". But this usage is limited to the idiom wén dào 聞道 "hear about the Way".
12. Xī 悉 and jìn 盡 refer to presumed completeness in knowledge.
- KNOW
1. The general word for knowing something to be the case in any way or on any basis is zhī 知, but the word is more common in the meanings discussed under UNDERSTAND as in 知人 "understand men".
2. Wén 聞 is to have learnt as given, so that one knows it as part of one's intellectual tradition or education.
3. Shí 識 is to be able to recognise and thus to have some idea of something through familiarity and experience, and what one is thus familiar with does not seem to be facts.
- INTELLIGENT
1. The most general word for the native ability to understand or to do things is zhī 知 "knowing", but a problem with this word is that it ranges freely and often imperceptibly in meaning from spiritual wisdom to technical competence.
2. Míng 明 (ant. àn 闇 "obfuscated in one's mind"), taking its analogy from sharpness of vision, typically refers to clarity of insight at all levels.
3. Cōng 聰 (ant. kuì 聵 "hard of understanding"), taking its analogy from sharpness of hearing, typically refers to well-informed sharpness of judgment.
4. Shān 顫 is a very rare word referring to the acute sense of smell, and thus to narine intelligence.
5. Chá 察 refers to discriminating investigative intelligence.
6. Ruì 睿 perspicacious in reflection.
SHU, HONGFAN: 視曰明，聽曰聰，思曰睿。
- AWARE
[[COMMON/RARE]]
[DIALECT/STANDARD]
[GENERAL/SPECIFIC]
[INCHOATIVE/CONTINUATIVE/PERFECTIVE]
1. The current general word for being aware of something or of being aware at all is zhī 知.
[GENERAL]
2. Jué 覺 is inchoative and refers to coming to the awareness of something or becoming aware of something.
[INCHOATIVE]
3. Xiǎo 曉 is a rare dialect word for awareness.
[[DIALECT], [[RARE]]
- Word relations
- Subject: (UNDERSTAND)淺/SHALLOW
- Inconsist: (UNDERSTAND)惑/CONFUSED
The standard general word for any kind of confusion is huò 惑 (ant. qīng 清 "be unconfused and clear"). - Result: (KNOW)告/REPORT
The current word for any report or the passing on of any information is gào 告. But see also ADDRESS. - Result: (UNDERSTAND)誨/TEACH
Huì 誨 (ant. xí 習 "study persistently") refers to systematic and persistent efforts to teach and inculcate intellectual or practical skills (誨之琴 "taught him to play the zither") and moral understanding of students (誨女知之 "I will teach you so you understand"), and the word never implies coercion or any threat of force. Huì 誨 can be mutual, or refer to equals teaching equals, even subordinates teaching superiors 諫誨 "remonstrate with and instruct". The word is not commonly nominalised. The primary aim of huì 誨 is understanding. - Result: (UNDERSTAND)慮/THINK
Lǜ 慮 refers to thoughtful long-term strategic (often personal) planning. - Result: (UNDERSTAND)生/LIFE
- Ant: (WISE)愚/STUPID
The dominant word is yú 愚 (ant. zhì 智 "clever; wise"), and the word refers to intellectual obtuseness as well as practical ineptitude. - Object: (UNDERSTAND)本/BASIS
The basic word is běn 本 "the trunk, the main part" (ant. mò 末 "marginal part") and this word refers to the crucial constituent of something in any sense. [GENERAL], [STATIC]; [[COMMON]] - Object: (UNDERSTAND)道/METHOD
Dào 道 is a way of being, of functioning, as well as a way of doing things, and this Way may be either exoteric or esoteric. - Object: (UNDERSTAND)道術/PHILOSOPHY
- Object: (UNDERSTAND)天道/LAW OF NATURE
- Object: (UNDERSTAND)天意/PLAN
- Epithet: (UNDERSTAND)深 / 深/PROFOUND
- Contrast: (KNOW)才 / 材/TALENT
The standard word for an unusual promising ability to perform important future tasks of any kind is cái 才／材, and the talents referred to by this word do not need to be of a "higher" kind. - Contrast: (INTELLIGENT)明/INTELLIGENT
Míng 明 (ant. àn 闇 "obfuscated in one's mind"), taking its analogy from sharpness of vision, typically refers to clarity of insight at all levels. - Contrast: (UNDERSTAND)溫/UNDERSTAND
Wēn 溫 refers to the resulting close familiarity after long acquaintance with a subject. - Contrast: (UNDERSTAND)由/CONFORM
Yóu 由 refers to conformity construed as a matter of taking something as one's starting point or point of orientation. - Contrast: (UNDERSTAND)好/DESIRE
Hào 好 (ant.* yàn 厭 "be fed up with VPing") refers to a general strong, and strongly motivated, inclination in favour of something. 好戰 "is fond of warfare". xxx - Contrast: (UNDERSTAND)智 / 知/INTELLIGENT
The most general word for native ability to understand is zhī 知 (ant. wú zhī 無知 "lack the ability to understand"), but the word ranges in meaning from spiritual wisdom to technical competence. - Contrast: (UNDERSTAND)覺/UNDERSTAND
Jué 覺 and the rarer wù 悟 are inchoative and refer to the coming to understand something - Contrast: (UNDERSTAND)識/KNOW
Shí 識 is to be able to recognise and thus to have some idea of something through familiarity and experience, and what one is thus familiar with does not seem to be facts. - Contrast: (KNOW)覺/UNDERSTAND
Jué 覺 and the rarer wù 悟 are inchoative and refer to the coming to understand something - Assoc: (INTELLIGENT)才 / 材/TALENT
The standard word for an unusual promising ability to perform important future tasks of any kind is cái 才／材, and the talents referred to by this word do not need to be of a "higher" kind. - Assoc: (FRIEND)友/FRIEND
The most general current word for a friend is yǒu 友 (ant. dí 敵 "enemy"), and the specific nuance indicated by this word is that of a commonality of feelings and interests, although it must be noted that the etymological link of the word is with the notion of "help", and in pre-SHI times the word tended to refer to cooperating associates rather than friends. - Synon: (UNDERSTAND)見/UNDERSTAND
- Synon: (UNDERSTAND)識/KNOW
Shí 識 is to be able to recognise and thus to have some idea of something through familiarity and experience, and what one is thus familiar with does not seem to be facts. - Synon: (UNDERSTAND)明/UNDERSTAND
Míng 明 (ant. měng 蒙 "have very confused notions about") refers to incisive clarity of insight. - Oppos: (UNDERSTAND)行/ACT
The current general word for any deliberate action one may be held morally and/or administratively responsible for is xíng 行 (ant. zhǐ 止 "decide not to take action"). The nominal entries have the old reading xìng. [COMMENDATORY!], [GENERAL], [HABITUAL], [RESPONSIBLE]