Taxonomy of meanings for 如:
- rù (OC: njas MC: ȵiɔ) 人恕切 去 廣韻：【又尒諸切 】
- rú (OC: nja MC: ȵiɔ) 人諸切 平 廣韻：【而也均也似也謀也往也若也又姓晉中經部魏有陳郡丞馮翊如淳注漢書又虜姓後魏書如羅氏後改爲如氏人諸切八 】
- RESEMBLE
- vt[0]oN.postadV堅如石"be solid like a stone" 隕如雨"fall like rain" resemble an N in Vi-ing
- vt[0]oN1.postadVtoN2N1 compared to subject of VtoN2蓋之如天"cover them like Heaven": resemble an N in Vt-ing: to Vt the object like the like the object of Vt1.
- vtoV1.postadV2V1 the same way as V2好德如好色 in the same way as
- vt0oN.postVmathematical termCHEMLA 2003:
- vt(0)onpro.adS如此則動心否乎？if (circumstances, things) are like npro, then S
- vtoN.adV如農夫之務去草"like a peasant making it his business to remove weeds": like
- vtoNobjective appearance民如野鹿“The people are like wild deer": be like, look like, act like (what) 何如
- vtoNsubjective impression於我如浮雲"It is like floating clouds to me": be like, amount to
- vt[0]oN1.postadVtoN2N1 compared to object N2養民如子"nourish the people like/as you would your own children": like (comparison being with the V-ing of N2, the object of the preceding transitive verb with the V-ing of N1)
- vtoNPab{S}如日月之食焉 resemble a fact, situation or action expressed by a nominalised sentence
- vtonpro.+NPab{S}如此其VERB
- vtoS如土委地 resemble a fact, situation or action expressed by a sentence
- vtoN.postadV如初, 如故 like (before)
- vtoN1.postadN2有雲如眾赤鳥 being like N2
- vtoNbe like that of心如虎狼"His heart is like that of a tiger or a wolf": be like that of; be like that in the time of
- vtoV[0]subjective如挾纊"feel as if they were quilted garments": feel as if
- vtoN1[.adN2]如虎之室"something like the dwelling of a tiger": something like N1, anything like N1CH
- vtoNPab{V}objective其如示諸斯乎"It is like showing it here": it is (objectively) like V-ingCH
- vt[0]oNPab{S}.postadV事之如孝子之養父母"serve him like a filial son looking after his parents": verb like the subject of NPab{S} is verbing in SCH
- vt[0]oN:postad.VPad者N compared with respect to VP-ing知我者如夫子"someone who understands me as the Master does": N resembles the subject of the VP with respect to VP-ing [Puzzling structure! 待考]CH
- vtoN.postNPab{S}N compared to SUBJ of S人之心不同如其面焉"The minds of men are as different as their faces": the PREDICATING of the subject of S is like that PREDICATING of N> be like [待考]CH
- vtoNabNab=actbe like Nab-ing, resemble Nab-ingCH
- resemble in desirable quality>EQUAL
- vtoN.postadV忠信如丘"be devoted and faithful equalling (in this) me, Confucius": V equalling>as well/as much as N
- vt(oN)to equal, be a match for some contextually determinate person
- vtoN.adVto VERB coming up to the standards (of somebody)
- vtoNactlive up to (standards); be a match for
- vtoNstativeresemble and come up to the standards of, be as good as; be to as high a degree as
- vt+V1.postadV2好德如好色"love virtue as much as one loves female beauty": V2 to the extent one is V1-ingCH
- create a resembling image>DEPICT
- vt[oN]make a likeness of things
- AS IF
- vt+V1.postadV2as if V-ing誦言如醉"declaim one's words as if one were drunk": as if
- vt+S.postadVLY 祭如神在"sacrifice as if the spirits were present": as if S (where S can be a 'minor sentence' with an understood subject"
- vt+V1.postadV2as if
- vt+V(0)main verb天下如一"the whole world acted as if they were one person": be as if one V-s; act as if one V-s; be as if V-ing; feel as if one is V-ing
- vt+V[0]V=passiveit is as if V-edCH
- vt(0)oSfigurativeit is as if SCH
- vtoN1.postadVtoN2N1 compared to the object N2as if (verbing) N2CH
- vtoV.postvtoNN=SUBJ of V事君如在國"serve the ruler as if he was present in the state": (verb the objectN) as if N V-edCH
- conditional>IF
- vadV{PRED}.postN{SUBJ}:adSirrealisif (unreal condition)
- padS1.adS2generalif in general
- padS1.adS2postposed?only if (subordinated clause comes after the main clause)
- padS1.adS2specificif by any chance
- vadV{PRED}.postN{SUBJ}:adSsupposing that it is so; if
- ppostN{SUBJ} V.adSif N V-s then SCH
- contrary to agreed fact>COUNTERFACTUAL
- padS1.adS2if counter to fact
- copletely>SAME
- vtoNbe the same as N, be no different from NCH
- postverbal:in the manner of V>SUFFIX
- vpostad:vi.redsuffix for descriptive intransitive verbs
- vpostadVsuffix for descriptive intransitive verbs
- act so as to resemble>CONFORM
- vt[0]oN.postadV有如此盟"may it be in accordance with the present agreement": V in accordance with/as determined by N, as in the case of N
- vtoN.adSaccording to
- vtoN.adVV 如君之言"in accordance with what you are saying": according to N
- vtoNact like; conform to, act in conformity with, succeed in accordance with; act in accordance with; do as in the case of, act as in the case of
- vt[0]oN1.postadVt(oN2)N1 compared to object N2like (the N2), conforming to the standards for N2CH
- vtoNoptativemay it be like N, may it conform to the case of N 亦如之
- GO TO
- vtoN.-V[0]go to N in order to V
- vtoNgo to (a place, typically on some mission of importance); walk up to a person
- vtoNN=toiletgo to a place, not on any official mission
- RESEMBLE
- rúAS
Additional information about 如
說文解字: 【如】，从隨也。从女、从口。 【徐鍇曰：女子从父之敎，从夫之命，故从口。會意。】 【人諸切】
- Criteria
- CHINESE LANGUAGE
1. guānhuà 官話 "Mandarin" is obsolete, and its traditional antonym was xiāngyǔ 鄉語 "local speech".
From Míng Dynasty times, this was a current word for the common vernacular language used by administrative staff of any kind throughout China.
DC: 明何良俊《四友齋叢說 ‧ 史十一》： " 雅宜不喜作鄉語，每發口必官話。 "
2. báihuà 白話 "plain speech, vernacular" (as opposed to wényán 文言 )
This is a modern word referring to an easily accessible written version of the Chinese language. In classical contexts or early vernacular contexts the expression always seems to refer to "empty talk" rather than the vernacular language.
3. guóyǔ 國語 "national language" (ant. wàiyǔ 外語 ) (pre-1950ies and Taiwan)
A word that continues to be in increasing common use even in Mainland China today, and which is standard in places like Malaysia or Singapore, as well as in Taiwan.
4. zhōngguóyǔ 中國語 "language of China" (ant. wàiguóyǔ 外國語 )
Current Japanese way of writing the Japanese word for the Chinese language, but the expression has a long history in China, the first attested use being in Yáng Xióng's Model Sayings of the first century BC.
5. pǔtōnghuà 普通話 "common language" (Mainland China) (ant. dìfāngyǔ 地方語, fāngyán 方言 "dialect (not in the ancient meaning)")
This is a very common modern expression which corresponds to Greek koinē, and the word is always used in counterdistinction to (often mutually incomprehensible) dialects. The word has a rather political flair.
6. Hànyǔ 漢語 "language of the Hàn people" (should include all dialects, but is often used otherwise)
This is the most current word for the Chinese language as opposed to other 族語 "national languages". The word is very current in the Buddhist Tripitaka, but it is also attested elsewhere 庾信《奉和法筵應詔》： " 佛影胡人記，經文漢語翻。 ". The term is also attested in 世說新語.
7. Zhōngguóhuà 中國話 "Chinese speech" (includes all dialects)
This word is always used in counterdistinction to foreign languages. It has become current in international contexts in nineteenth century novels.
8. Zhōngwén 中文 "Chinese (typically written) language" (ant. wàiwén 外文, often icludes speech: 會說中文 )
This word is already attested in the medieval 搜神記, where it refers to the written language. In Modern Standard Chinese this is a very common way of referring to Chinese as opposed to foreign languages, and as a subject in school curricula.
9. Huáyǔ 華語 "Chinese talk" (used mainly in Singapore, Hong Kong etc.)
This word has a long history in Buddhist texts, and it is also already attested in 劉知幾《史通 ‧ 言語》： "... 必諱彼夷音，變成華語.
10. Hànyīn 漢音 "Han-Chinese sounds" refers to the Chinese language in a poetic style. Sanskrit is currently referred to as 梵音.
HD sub verbo 漢文： 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "
HD: 2. 指漢語。南朝宋朱廣之《咨顧道士＜夷夏論＞》： " 想茲漢音，流入彼國。 "
老子漢人也。
新修科分六學僧傳 R133_p0714a04(02)║
胡蕃國也。土地不同。則言音亦異。當其化胡成佛之際。為作漢音耶。作蕃音耶。苟以漢音。則蕃國有所不解。以蕃音。則此經之至。宜須翻譯。
11. Hàn yán 漢言 "Hàn language, language of the Hàn Dynasty> Chinese" (ant. 胡言 or 胡語 ) is a historico-ethnographic term.
This remained a very common way of referring to the Chinese language long after the Hàn Dynasty, as is clear from the Buddhist Tripitaka. (424 occurrences in CBETA.)
T25n1512_p0835b29(05)║
胡言般若波羅蜜。
漢言智慧彼岸也
T48n2023_p1095c25(00)║
志曰。
佛者。 Buddha
漢言覺也。 is "the enlightened" in Hàn language"
將以覺悟群生也。 He will bring enlightenment to the sentient beings.
12. Wényán 文言 "literary Chinese" (ant. báihuà 白話 "plain vernacular") today refers to a modernised version of traditional classical Chinese, as used for example in letters. But in the Buddhist Tripitaka, for example, the phrase regularly refers to ornate Chinese, ornate formulations. Neither traditionally nor in modern times is 文言 used in counterdistinction to foreign languages: the contrast is with other varieties of Chinese.
DC: 4. 別於白話的古漢語書面語。蔡元培《在國語傳習所的演說》： " 文言上還有例句，如 ' 爾無我詐，我無爾虞 ' 等。 "
13. wényánwén 文言文 "literary Chinese writing" (ant. báihuàwén 白話文 ) refers to classical Chinese as it continues to be used in the introductions to books and in formal letter-writing.
This is a twentieth century word, as far as I can see.
14. báihuà-wén 白話文 "plain talk writing" (ant. wényánwén 文言文 ) is a term with a strong stylistic nuance.
This is a twentieth century word.
15. tōngyòngyǔ 通用語 "general use language".
This is a twentieth century neologism designed to replace 普通話. The term has never achieved broad use.
16. dàzhòngyǔ 大眾語 "mass language" is obsolete today.
This is a politicised ideological concept stressing the universal use and popularity of the Chinese language as advocated by language politicians. It is a twentieth century political neologism.
17. guówén 國文 "state writing" refers in a formal way to written Chinese.
This is a twentieth century term mainly used in connection with educational politics.
HD: 許地山《東野先生》： “ 這不是國文教科書底一課麼？ ”
18. Hàn wén 漢文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Hàn (typically written) language"
HD: 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "
19. Zhōngguó wénzì 中國文字 "the Chinese (written) language"
T49n2036_p0477a06(03)║
中國文字未通。蓋不可知也。
R110_p0542b01(05)║
偈語原必有韻譯以中國文字。則無可協。
R110_p0542b09(00)║
流入東土後。以中國文字經為尊稱。故亦稱經。
20. Huá yán 華言 is an obsolete traditional term for Chinese that comes over 1200 times in Taisho Tripitaka.
R150_p0541a 13(00)║
剌麻者。乃西域之尊稱。
譯華言為無上二字。
R149_p0695a 12(00)║
梵語阿修羅。亦云阿素洛。
又云阿須倫。
華言非天。
R149_p0718b05(03)║
梵語袈裟華言壞色衣。
21. dōngtǔ Huáxiàyán 東土華夏言 "Chinese language in the eastern regions" is an ad hoc periphrastic expression which one might insist was never lexicalised, but it is perhaps worth recording just as well, if only in order to
R059_p0119b04(00)║
梵語。西天梵國語也。
華言。東土華夏言也。
譯者翻也。
謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。
22. Hàn'ér yányǔ 漢兒言語 "Hàn language" is a term that is current in Korean textbooks of colloquial Chinese, like the famous 老乞大 : “ 你是高麗人，卻怎麼漢兒言語說的好。 ” See also the article in 太田辰夫《漢語史通考 · 關於漢兒言語》
23. Jìn wén 晉文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Jìn (typically written) language" is fairly rare, but clear examples are easily found:
T50n2059_p0326c12(02)║
還歸中夏。
自燉煌至長安。
沿路傳譯寫為晉文。
24. Jìn yán 晉言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Jìn" is common indeed, but many examples can be read technically as "in Jìn this translates as". Not however in this example:
於龜茲國金華祠。
T14n0434_p0105ā6(01)║
演出此經。譯梵音為晉言。
T33n1693_p0001ā7(01)║
斯經似安世高譯。為晉言也。 (punctuation probably wrong!)
25. Jìn yǔ 晉語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Jìn"
T50n2059_p0329ā2(00)║
手執梵文口宣晉語。
T55n2145_p0072b24(03)║
先誦本文。
然後乃譯為晉語。
26. Jìn yīn 晉音 "Jìn Dynasty speech"
T14n0434_p0105á1(00)║
沙門慧海者。通龜茲語。
善解晉音。
林復命使譯龜茲語為晉音。
T50n2060_p0634á6(02)║
外國語云阿耨菩提。
晉音翻之無上大道。
27. Qín yán 秦言 "Qín language> Chinese" is the standard way of providing Chinese translations for Sanskrit words in the Buddhist Tripitaka. (No less than 1132 examples in CBETA, but mostly formulaic, as in the following examples.)
答曰。摩訶秦言大。 "maha is "big"in Chinese"
T25n1509_p0383á2(03)║
今問摩訶薩義。摩訶者秦言大。
28. Qín yǔ 秦語 "Speech of the Qín > Chinese"
In the Buddhist Tripitaka, this is a very formal term for Chinese, not very common. (Only 22 occurrences in CBETA)
T26n1543_p0771b02(08)║
梵本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千五百四言 ) 。
秦語十九萬五千二百五十言。
T51n2068_p0053c09(05)║
什自手執胡經。
口譯秦語曲從方言而趣不乖本。
T51n2068_p0054á9(07)║
什自執梵本口譯秦語。
T55n2145_p0072b07(28)║
胡本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千三百四言 ) 秦語十九萬五千二百五十言
T55n2145_p0073c09(02)║
胡本一萬一千七百五十二首盧長五字也。
凡三十七萬六千六十四言也。
秦語為十六五千九百七十五字。
29. Táng wén 唐文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Táng (typically written) language"
This is the standard way of referring to the written Chinese language in Buddhist texts of the Táng dynasty.
R130_p0664b06(02)║
以華言唐文刻釋氏經典
T39n1797_p0803b21(10)║
不得梵文依唐文得意亦同。
T48n2025_p1160a24(08)║
唐文多對偶當盡翻譯。
T50n2060_p0614c17(05)║
有天竺三藏大齎梵本擬譯唐文。
R024_p0177a16(02)║
語精梵言。
雖亦兼美唐文。
乍來恐未盡善。
30. Táng yán 唐言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Táng".
1523 occurrences in CBETA. Occasionally, one wonders whether this does refer to Táng time Chinese whereas Hànyīn 漢音 does not:
T20n1177Ap0724c02(01)║
遂將得舊翻譯唐言漢音經本在寺。
31. Táng yǔ 唐語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Táng"
A fairly rare way of referring to the Chinese language in Táng Buddhist texts. (Only 18 occurrences in CBETA)
R014_p0563a14(02)║
印度罽賓皆未詳唐語。
R036_p0985a16(18)║
又多兩重怗文當知初依梵文後釋唐語
T30n1579_p0283c07(05)║
三藏法師玄奘。
敬執梵文譯為唐語。
32. Táng yīn 唐音 "Táng speech" is a regular expression for Táng Dynasty Chinese in the Buddhist Tripitaka.
R036_p0584b13600)
梵語本是兩名唐音無以甄別
R066_p0717b08(01)║
此偈乃是梵語訛言。
傳者將為唐音正字。
33. Tánghuà 唐話 "Táng talk" is a current Cantonese term for Chinese, and the famous intellectual 許地山 writes: 他說的雖是唐話，但是語格和腔調全是不對的。 But in this phrase, I am instructed by my teacher and friend Jiǎng Shàoyú, Táng refers not to the dynasty but to 唐山.
34. Dà Táng yǔ 大唐語 "Speech of the Great Táng Dynasty" is rarely attested, but the word does exist:
R150_p1055b17(00)║
若僧雖是新羅人。却會大唐語。 Monk Ruò was a person from Xīnluó, but he spoke the language of the Great Táng Dynasty.
35. Hàn 漢 is an abbreviation for Hànyǔ 漢語 currently used in Buddhist translation theory, but the word is not in itself a term for the Chinese language outside such technical contexts.
T21n1293_p0378c15(02)║
翻梵為漢 Translate the Sanskrit into Chinese.
R068_p0353b05(05)║
梵是天竺之言。
漢是此土之語。
R133_p0623b09(07)║
序以條列梵漢旨義。
R005_p0007b03(02)║
翻譯之家自有規准。 The specialists in translation have their own standards.
若名梵漢共有。 If a term exists both in Sanskrit and in Chinese
則敵對而翻。 than they just match the terms up in translation.
36. Táng 唐 "language of the Táng Dynsasty.
梵唐
T54n2133Ap1196b12(02)║
一曰義淨撰梵語千字文。
或名梵唐千字文。
T55n2176_p1118a01(00)║
梵唐對譯阿彌陀經一卷 ( 仁 )
This is the same as 梵唐語：
T55n2176_p1118b20(00)║
梵唐語對註譯大佛頂真言一卷
T55n2176_p1119c19(18)║
梵唐對譯法花二十八品
T55n2176_p1120a05(00)║
梵唐對譯金剛般若經二卷
T55n2176_p1131a06(00)║
梵唐文字一卷
37. Jìn 晉 "the language of the Jìn Dynasty.
The term is rarely used to refer directly to the language, unlike the common Táng 唐. But examples do exist:
T55n2157_p0795c08(08)║
既學兼梵晉故譯義精允。
38. nèidìhuà 內地話 refers to the language spoken on the Mainland, and the word is mostly used on Taiwan. This term represents an outsider's view on the Chinese language. (2.9 million hits in Google! This important word was brought to my attention by Jens Østergaard Petersen.)
39. shénzhōu yǔ 神州語 "the language of our divine land" is quaint, nationalistically sentimental, and a rare way of referring to the Chinese language.
beijing.kijiji.cn/á1221463.html:
心中一暖，想到他居然會說神州語，正要說些甚麼，但一開口，嘴部動作牽動喉嚨，...
40. zúyǔ 族語 "the national language (of the Chinese) is a borderline case because the term refers to national languages in general, and only by extension to Chinese in particular.
42. Hàn dì zhī yán 漢地之言 "language of the Ha4n territory" is a marginal periphrastic expression which one should probably not regard as a lexicalised item. One could study such periphrastic expressions separately from the lexicalised vocabulary.
R059_p0119b06(06)║
謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。
[43. jīngpiànzi 京片子 "Chinese as spoken in Peking" is a borderline case because it does refer to Peking speech, but not insofar as it is the standard for the whole of China. Colloquial examples of this sort could be multiplied...]
- GO TO
1. Zhī 之 is to go to a place, typically taking the most direct route, by any conveyance as a result of a decision and typically with the purpose of staying there for a while or conducting some business.
2. Cào/zào 造 and rú 如 refer to aiming for a destination, and the movement may be by foot or by any conveyance.
3. Wǎng 往 (ant. jū 居 "remain at home") refers to setting out for a destination by any means of transport or by foot, and the destination is not very often made explicit by an ordinary noun as object. Moreover wǎng 往 does not necessarily imply going somewhere by the most direct route.
4. Fù 赴 refers to hastening to a (typically dangerous) destination (such as an abyss or fire), or to a place where one is to perform a public duty.
5. Qū 趨 refers to hurrying politely to a destination.
6. Shì 適 refers to moving in a certain direction, or heading for a certain place, and the word is also used for arrival at the destination.
7. Jiù 就 (ant. qù 去 "leave") and the somewhat rarer jí 即 (ant. lí 離 "leave") refer to approaching a certain destination by any means of transport.
8. Yì 詣 refers to going somewhere to pay a formal visit. See VISIT.
- EQUAL
1. The dominant general word for something being equal to something else without being identical or the same is tóng 同 (ant. yì 異 "of different status").
2. Děng 等 refers to things being on the same physical level or exposed to the same physical conditions. Cf. 差等 "hierarchy".
3. Jūn 均 typically refers to an even, equable, and equal distribution of things.
4. O ㄆ偶 refers specifically to the situation where two things form a pair.
5. Dí 敵 refers to someone who is the equal of someone else in a contest, and in fact probably able to win against the other party. The term is thus someone marginal in the group.
6. Rú 如 refers to equalling something else as it were "from below", coming up to a something else in a certain sense.
- SHOULD
1. The current general word expressing obligation is dāng 當, and this word focusses on the fact that one is objectively obliged to do something.
2. Yí 宜 emphasises that what one should do is indeed fitting and proper.
3. Bù kě bù 不可不 construes obligation as inevitability or inescapablitity.
4. Bì 必 emphasises obligation as ineluctable and expresses a stronger obligation than bù kě bù 不可不.
5. Mò rú 莫如 emphasises that some obligation represents the best of several options.
6. Qí 其 expresses a colourless rather weak obligation to do something.
7. Kě 可 precedes passivised verbs and expresses the idea that some object should be VERBed. See MUST
- LIKE
1. The general words expressing preference is ài 愛, but the notion is often hard to distinguish from a preferential desire, and for the semantically closely related hào 好 see DESIRE.
2. Nìng 寧 refers to subjective general preference.
3. Bù rú 不如 refers to objective preferability "one should prefer to, one should rather". See also SHOULD.
- RESEMBLE
1. The general, almost copula-like word for resemblance of any kind is yóu 猶 (ant.* yì 異 "be different"), and this word can refer specifically to one item being "no better than" another.
2. Rú 如 is often asymmetrical "be as good>match>resemble essentially>resemble in appearance only" often adds to the notion of resemblance that of equipollence. [ 不如 always: "be not as good as"]
3. Ruò 若 typically expresses a symmetrical relation of things that are similar to each other. By analogy with rú 如 bù ruò 不若 is often "be not as good as" but sometimes also "not resemble".]
4. Sì 似 and the later and rarer colloquial xiàng 像 are often ungrammaticalised full verbs meaning typically "to resemble in appearance only".
5. Lèi 類 (ant. yì 異 "be different in kind") is originally and prototypically "be of the same kind or category>resemble", but comes to mean more generally "be similar".
- Word relations
- Object: (CONFORM)天意/PLAN
- Assoc: (EQUAL)及/CATCH UP
Jí 及 emphasises the result of the successful pursuit, the reaching itself. - Synon: (RESEMBLE)猶 / 由/RESEMBLE
The general, almost copula-like word for resemblance of any kind is yóu 猶 (ant.* yì 異 "be different"), and this word can refer specifically to one item being "no better than" another.