Taxonomy of meanings for 謂:　　

Additional information about 謂

說文解字:

Criteria
• MEAN
  

  1. The current general word for a person or an expression meaning something is yán 言. X 言 Y comes to mean "X means Y".

  2. Yì 意 is the standard word for meaning as "what one has in mind".

  3. Zhì 志 is commonly used to refer to an inteneded meaning as expressive of a mental orientation.

  4. Yuē 曰 "be called", the equivalent of wèi zhī 謂之, is the converse of yán 言 : X 曰 Y comes to mean "for X one says Y", or "X is called Y".

  5. Zhǐ 指 is used as technical term for intended objective meaning in philosophical contexts.

  6. Zhǐ 旨 is a stylistically elevated term which refers nominally to the overall import of what is said or written.

  7. Wèi 謂 refers to what a person or an expression is intended to refer to as an object or as the intended meaning, or to the semantic process itself.

  8. Zhī wèi 之謂 "refers to, is intended to refer to" belongs not so much to linguistics or lexicography as to the hermeneutics concrete interpretation of a given text.

• CHINESE LANGUAGE
  

  1. guānhuà 官話 "Mandarin" is obsolete, and its traditional antonym was xiāngyǔ 鄉語 "local speech".

  From Míng Dynasty times, this was a current word for the common vernacular language used by administrative staff of any kind throughout China.

  DC: 明何良俊《四友齋叢說 ‧ 史十一》： " 雅宜不喜作鄉語，每發口必官話。 "

  2. báihuà 白話 "plain speech, vernacular" (as opposed to wényán 文言 )

  This is a modern word referring to an easily accessible written version of the Chinese language. In classical contexts or early vernacular contexts the expression always seems to refer to "empty talk" rather than the vernacular language.

  3. guóyǔ 國語 "national language" (ant. wàiyǔ 外語 ) (pre-1950ies and Taiwan)

  A word that continues to be in increasing common use even in Mainland China today, and which is standard in places like Malaysia or Singapore, as well as in Taiwan.

  4. zhōngguóyǔ 中國語 "language of China" (ant. wàiguóyǔ 外國語 )

  Current Japanese way of writing the Japanese word for the Chinese language, but the expression has a long history in China, the first attested use being in Yáng Xióng's Model Sayings of the first century BC.

  5. pǔtōnghuà 普通話 "common language" (Mainland China) (ant. dìfāngyǔ 地方語, fāngyán 方言 "dialect (not in the ancient meaning)")

  This is a very common modern expression which corresponds to Greek koinē, and the word is always used in counterdistinction to (often mutually incomprehensible) dialects. The word has a rather political flair.

  6. Hànyǔ 漢語 "language of the Hàn people" (should include all dialects, but is often used otherwise)

  This is the most current word for the Chinese language as opposed to other 族語 "national languages". The word is very current in the Buddhist Tripitaka, but it is also attested elsewhere 庾信《奉和法筵應詔》： " 佛影胡人記，經文漢語翻。 ". The term is also attested in 世說新語.

  7. Zhōngguóhuà 中國話 "Chinese speech" (includes all dialects)

  This word is always used in counterdistinction to foreign languages. It has become current in international contexts in nineteenth century novels.

  8. Zhōngwén 中文 "Chinese (typically written) language" (ant. wàiwén 外文, often icludes speech: 會說中文 )

  This word is already attested in the medieval 搜神記, where it refers to the written language. In Modern Standard Chinese this is a very common way of referring to Chinese as opposed to foreign languages, and as a subject in school curricula.

  9. Huáyǔ 華語 "Chinese talk" (used mainly in Singapore, Hong Kong etc.)

  This word has a long history in Buddhist texts, and it is also already attested in 劉知幾《史通 ‧ 言語》： "... 必諱彼夷音，變成華語.

  10. Hànyīn 漢音 "Han-Chinese sounds" refers to the Chinese language in a poetic style. Sanskrit is currently referred to as 梵音.

  HD sub verbo 漢文： 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "

  HD: 2. 指漢語。南朝宋朱廣之《咨顧道士＜夷夏論＞》： " 想茲漢音，流入彼國。 "

  老子漢人也。

  新修科分六學僧傳 R133_p0714a04(02)║

  胡蕃國也。土地不同。則言音亦異。當其化胡成佛之際。為作漢音耶。作蕃音耶。苟以漢音。則蕃國有所不解。以蕃音。則此經之至。宜須翻譯。

  11. Hàn yán 漢言 "Hàn language, language of the Hàn Dynasty> Chinese" (ant. 胡言 or 胡語 ) is a historico-ethnographic term.

  This remained a very common way of referring to the Chinese language long after the Hàn Dynasty, as is clear from the Buddhist Tripitaka. (424 occurrences in CBETA.)

  T25n1512_p0835b29(05)║

  胡言般若波羅蜜。

  漢言智慧彼岸也

  T48n2023_p1095c25(00)║

  志曰。

  佛者。 Buddha

  漢言覺也。 is "the enlightened" in Hàn language"

  將以覺悟群生也。 He will bring enlightenment to the sentient beings.

  12. Wényán 文言 "literary Chinese" (ant. báihuà 白話 "plain vernacular") today refers to a modernised version of traditional classical Chinese, as used for example in letters. But in the Buddhist Tripitaka, for example, the phrase regularly refers to ornate Chinese, ornate formulations. Neither traditionally nor in modern times is 文言 used in counterdistinction to foreign languages: the contrast is with other varieties of Chinese.

  DC: 4. 別於白話的古漢語書面語。蔡元培《在國語傳習所的演說》： " 文言上還有例句，如 ' 爾無我詐，我無爾虞 ' 等。 "

  13. wényánwén 文言文 "literary Chinese writing" (ant. báihuàwén 白話文 ) refers to classical Chinese as it continues to be used in the introductions to books and in formal letter-writing.

  This is a twentieth century word, as far as I can see.

  14. báihuà-wén 白話文 "plain talk writing" (ant. wényánwén 文言文 ) is a term with a strong stylistic nuance.

  This is a twentieth century word.

  15. tōngyòngyǔ 通用語 "general use language".

  This is a twentieth century neologism designed to replace 普通話. The term has never achieved broad use.

  16. dàzhòngyǔ 大眾語 "mass language" is obsolete today.

  This is a politicised ideological concept stressing the universal use and popularity of the Chinese language as advocated by language politicians. It is a twentieth century political neologism.

  17. guówén 國文 "state writing" refers in a formal way to written Chinese.

  This is a twentieth century term mainly used in connection with educational politics.

  HD: 許地山《東野先生》： “ 這不是國文教科書底一課麼？ ”

  18. Hàn wén 漢文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Hàn (typically written) language"

  HD: 2. 漢語；漢字。南朝梁僧祐《梵漢譯經音義同异記》： " 或善梵義而不了漢音，或明漢文而不曉梵意。 "

  19. Zhōngguó wénzì 中國文字 "the Chinese (written) language"

  T49n2036_p0477a06(03)║　

  中國文字未通。蓋不可知也。

  R110_p0542b01(05)║

  偈語原必有韻譯以中國文字。則無可協。

  R110_p0542b09(00)║

  流入東土後。以中國文字經為尊稱。故亦稱經。

  20. Huá yán 華言 is an obsolete traditional term for Chinese that comes over 1200 times in Taisho Tripitaka.

  R150_p0541a 13(00)║

  剌麻者。乃西域之尊稱。

  譯華言為無上二字。

  R149_p0695a 12(00)║

  梵語阿修羅。亦云阿素洛。

  又云阿須倫。

  華言非天。

  R149_p0718b05(03)║

  梵語袈裟華言壞色衣。

  21. dōngtǔ Huáxiàyán 東土華夏言 "Chinese language in the eastern regions" is an ad hoc periphrastic expression which one might insist was never lexicalised, but it is perhaps worth recording just as well, if only in order to

  R059_p0119b04(00)║

  梵語。西天梵國語也。

  華言。東土華夏言也。

  譯者翻也。

  謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。

  22. Hàn'ér yányǔ 漢兒言語 "Hàn language" is a term that is current in Korean textbooks of colloquial Chinese, like the famous 老乞大 : “ 你是高麗人，卻怎麼漢兒言語說的好。 ” See also the article in 太田辰夫《漢語史通考 · 關於漢兒言語》

  23. Jìn wén 晉文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Jìn (typically written) language" is fairly rare, but clear examples are easily found:

  T50n2059_p0326c12(02)║

  還歸中夏。

  自燉煌至長安。

  沿路傳譯寫為晉文。

  24. Jìn yán 晉言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Jìn" is common indeed, but many examples can be read technically as "in Jìn this translates as". Not however in this example:

  於龜茲國金華祠。

  T14n0434_p0105ā6(01)║　

  演出此經。譯梵音為晉言。

  T33n1693_p0001ā7(01)║

  斯經似安世高譯。為晉言也。 (punctuation probably wrong!)

  25. Jìn yǔ 晉語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Jìn"

  T50n2059_p0329ā2(00)║

  手執梵文口宣晉語。

  T55n2145_p0072b24(03)║

  先誦本文。

  然後乃譯為晉語。

  26. Jìn yīn 晉音 "Jìn Dynasty speech"

  T14n0434_p0105á1(00)║

  沙門慧海者。通龜茲語。

  善解晉音。

  林復命使譯龜茲語為晉音。

  T50n2060_p0634á6(02)║

  外國語云阿耨菩提。

  晉音翻之無上大道。

  27. Qín yán 秦言 "Qín language> Chinese" is the standard way of providing Chinese translations for Sanskrit words in the Buddhist Tripitaka. (No less than 1132 examples in CBETA, but mostly formulaic, as in the following examples.)

  答曰。摩訶秦言大。 "maha is "big"in Chinese"

  T25n1509_p0383á2(03)║

  今問摩訶薩義。摩訶者秦言大。

  28. Qín yǔ 秦語 "Speech of the Qín > Chinese"

  In the Buddhist Tripitaka, this is a very formal term for Chinese, not very common. (Only 22 occurrences in CBETA)

  T26n1543_p0771b02(08)║

  梵本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千五百四言 ) 。

  秦語十九萬五千二百五十言。

  T51n2068_p0053c09(05)║

  什自手執胡經。

  口譯秦語曲從方言而趣不乖本。

  T51n2068_p0054á9(07)║

  什自執梵本口譯秦語。

  T55n2145_p0072b07(28)║

  胡本十五千七十二首盧 ( 四十八萬二千三百四言 ) 秦語十九萬五千二百五十言

  T55n2145_p0073c09(02)║

  胡本一萬一千七百五十二首盧長五字也。

  凡三十七萬六千六十四言也。

  秦語為十六五千九百七十五字。

  29. Táng wén 唐文 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Táng (typically written) language"

  This is the standard way of referring to the written Chinese language in Buddhist texts of the Táng dynasty.

  R130_p0664b06(02)║

  以華言唐文刻釋氏經典

  T39n1797_p0803b21(10)║

  不得梵文依唐文得意亦同。

  T48n2025_p1160a24(08)║

  唐文多對偶當盡翻譯。

  T50n2060_p0614c17(05)║

  有天竺三藏大齎梵本擬譯唐文。

  R024_p0177a16(02)║　

  語精梵言。

  雖亦兼美唐文。

  乍來恐未盡善。

  30. Táng yán 唐言 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Language of the Táng".

  1523 occurrences in CBETA. Occasionally, one wonders whether this does refer to Táng time Chinese whereas Hànyīn 漢音 does not:

  T20n1177Ap0724c02(01)║

  遂將得舊翻譯唐言漢音經本在寺。

  31. Táng yǔ 唐語 (obsolete, current in Buddhist texts) "Speech of the Táng"

  A fairly rare way of referring to the Chinese language in Táng Buddhist texts. (Only 18 occurrences in CBETA)

  R014_p0563a14(02)║

  印度罽賓皆未詳唐語。

  R036_p0985a16(18)║　　　　

  又多兩重怗文當知初依梵文後釋唐語

  T30n1579_p0283c07(05)║

  三藏法師玄奘。

  敬執梵文譯為唐語。

  32. Táng yīn 唐音 "Táng speech" is a regular expression for Táng Dynasty Chinese in the Buddhist Tripitaka.

  R036_p0584b13600)

  梵語本是兩名唐音無以甄別

  R066_p0717b08(01)║

  此偈乃是梵語訛言。

  傳者將為唐音正字。

  33. Tánghuà 唐話 "Táng talk" is a current Cantonese term for Chinese, and the famous intellectual 許地山 writes: 他說的雖是唐話，但是語格和腔調全是不對的。 But in this phrase, I am instructed by my teacher and friend Jiǎng Shàoyú, Táng refers not to the dynasty but to 唐山.

  34. Dà Táng yǔ 大唐語 "Speech of the Great Táng Dynasty" is rarely attested, but the word does exist:

  R150_p1055b17(00)║

  若僧雖是新羅人。却會大唐語。 Monk Ruò was a person from Xīnluó, but he spoke the language of the Great Táng Dynasty.

  35. Hàn 漢 is an abbreviation for Hànyǔ 漢語 currently used in Buddhist translation theory, but the word is not in itself a term for the Chinese language outside such technical contexts.

  T21n1293_p0378c15(02)║　

  翻梵為漢 Translate the Sanskrit into Chinese.

  R068_p0353b05(05)║

  梵是天竺之言。

  漢是此土之語。

  R133_p0623b09(07)║

  序以條列梵漢旨義。

  R005_p0007b03(02)║

  翻譯之家自有規准。 The specialists in translation have their own standards.

  若名梵漢共有。 If a term exists both in Sanskrit and in Chinese

  則敵對而翻。 than they just match the terms up in translation.

  36. Táng 唐 "language of the Táng Dynsasty.

  梵唐

  T54n2133Ap1196b12(02)║　

  一曰義淨撰梵語千字文。

  或名梵唐千字文。

  T55n2176_p1118a01(00)║　

  梵唐對譯阿彌陀經一卷 ( 仁 )

  This is the same as 梵唐語：

  T55n2176_p1118b20(00)║　

  梵唐語對註譯大佛頂真言一卷

  T55n2176_p1119c19(18)║

  梵唐對譯法花二十八品

  T55n2176_p1120a05(00)║　

  梵唐對譯金剛般若經二卷

  T55n2176_p1131a06(00)║　

  梵唐文字一卷

  37. Jìn 晉 "the language of the Jìn Dynasty.

  The term is rarely used to refer directly to the language, unlike the common Táng 唐. But examples do exist:

  T55n2157_p0795c08(08)║

  既學兼梵晉故譯義精允。

  38. nèidìhuà 內地話 refers to the language spoken on the Mainland, and the word is mostly used on Taiwan. This term represents an outsider's view on the Chinese language. (2.9 million hits in Google! This important word was brought to my attention by Jens Østergaard Petersen.)

  39. shénzhōu yǔ 神州語 "the language of our divine land" is quaint, nationalistically sentimental, and a rare way of referring to the Chinese language.

  beijing.kijiji.cn/á1221463.html:

  心中一暖，想到他居然會說神州語，正要說些甚麼，但一開口，嘴部動作牽動喉嚨，...

  40. zúyǔ 族語 "the national language (of the Chinese) is a borderline case because the term refers to national languages in general, and only by extension to Chinese in particular.

  42. Hàn dì zhī yán 漢地之言 "language of the Ha4n territory" is a marginal periphrastic expression which one should probably not regard as a lexicalised item. One could study such periphrastic expressions separately from the lexicalised vocabulary.

  R059_p0119b06(06)║

  謂翻梵天之語。轉成漢地之言也。

  [43. jīngpiànzi 京片子 "Chinese as spoken in Peking" is a borderline case because it does refer to Peking speech, but not insofar as it is the standard for the whole of China. Colloquial examples of this sort could be multiplied...]

• SOUND
  

  1. The dominant word for any sound produced by any creature or instrument is shēng 聲 and the word can come to refer specifically to the sound produced by the human voice (see VOICE), hence the word can also refer to a song with a melody and also to the tones as making up a melody. See SONG.

  2. Yīn 音 is much narrower in application, and more elevated in style, and the word typically applies to sound shaped into music or the like and often viewed as an aesthetic object. 聲成文謂之音。 "When sound makes a pattern it becomes yīn", true enough, but it does remain shēng 聲 also.

  3. Xiāo 囂 and xuān 喧 refer primarily to the din of human voices, but these words do have regular extended uses where they refer to any noisy or irritating sound.

  4. Xiǎng 響, which primarily means "echo", often comes to refer to any sound without any connotations concerning the irritating nature of the sound.

• ASK
  

  [ASCENDING/DESCENDING]

  [[COMMON/RARE]]

  [GENERAL/SPECIFIC]

  [INFORMAL/OFFICIAL]

  1. The general word is wèn 問 "open a dialogue by consulting someone with a question" (ant. duì 對 "reply to a superior") which typically refers to the consultation of a person who is supposed to know something. When the adressee is explicit, the questioner is typically of higher status than the addressee, and the reply is correspondingly often phrased politely as duì yuē 對曰. When there is no explicit addressee (X asked about Y), the addressee often is of higher status (e.g. a teacher).

  [SPECIFIC]; [[COMMOM+]]

  2. Qǐng 請 is occasionally used to refer to polite requests for information.

  [[RARE]]

  3. Nàn 難 is to ask intellectually hostile questions regarding something which the person questioned has said or maintains as true, to make objections. See DISAGREE and REFUTE which are difficult to distinguish from each other and from this.

  [SPECIFIC], [HORIZONTAL]

  4. Fǎng 訪 typically refers to questioning addressed to superiors.

  [ASCENDING]

  5. Xún 詢 typically refers to rather formal questions addressed to inferiors.

  [DESCENDING], [OFFICIAL]

  6. Zī 諮／咨 refers to questions addressed to a specialist.

  [SPECIFIC]

  7. Zōu 諏 all refer to some kind of official soliciting of formal opinions.

  [OFFICIAL]; [[RARE]]

  8. Yuē 曰 is regularly used to introduce related questions as reactions within an ongoing dialogue.

  <div>9. Wèi 謂 may introduce what are in fact questions rather than statements.</div><div><br></div><div>10. Wèn yuē 問曰 introduces a a question that opens a new dialogue or a discrete new phase in a dialogue.</div><div><br></div><div>NB: ASKing in Chinese us always dialogic: one cannot ask oneself any question 問己, and one cannot abstractly just raise an abstract question as an intellectual issue worthy of discussion. There seems to be no word in classical Chinese for "asking a question" without addressing this question to an audience.<br></div><br>

• CHINA
  

  睡虎地秦墓竹簡 1978: 226 臣邦人不安秦主而欲去夏者, 勿許. 何謂夏 ? 欲去親屬是謂夏.

  The words for China have this in common that they do NOT designate any one state. 中國 "the central states" is implicitly plural when it does not refer to the capital city. 諸夏 the various Xià (states)" is explicitly plural. The standard Imperium Romanum has no counterpart in Chinese until very late, unless one admits 天下 "all under Heaven" as a designation for the empire. But 天下 does not define any bounded empire. It remains to be seen exactly when a standard term for China was took shape. Compare the problems of finding a term for the Chinese language.

  Based on 顧頡剛 & 王樹民, “ 夏 ” 和 “ 中國 ”— 祖國古代的稱號, Zhongguo lishi dili luncong, Vol. 1 (Xi'an, 1981), 6-22).

  In the Shu and Shi sections relating to the early Zhou, 區夏 (= 夏區 ), 有夏 and 時夏 (= 是夏 ) refers to the place in which the Zhou established their capital after their conquest of Shang, in contradistinction to Zhou 掇 homeland in the West ( 西土 ) and the close Zhou allies ( 一二邦 ). The Zhou referred to their own domain as 烠 he central city-state � ( 中國 ). Since 中國 in this usage refers to the territory directly governed by the Zhou, it is singular and used in exchange with 京師 and in contradistinction with 四方 and 四國. Other states also referred to their capital regions as 啎什縕 (thus Wu in GY 19.09.01/618); a (perhaps late) variant of this word is 啎尹塹 (Yugong).

  After becoming strong, the states enfeoffed by Zhou asserted the community with the 周 by commencing to refer to themselves as 堔 L �, leading to the plural designation 埣悎 L �, used in contrast with designations like 啈 i 狄�. The distinction between the two groups was viewed as cultural, and its precise reference shifted over time, originally excluding states (like 楚 ) from the community of 諸夏 but later including them, or including them in the beginning, whilst later excluding them (like 秦 ). Some of the non- 諸夏 states were viewed as subservient to 諸夏 states, others as their enemies. The membership of 楚 to the 諸夏 circle was always insecure; it was, so to speak, was"always on probation.

  The 東夏 made up a subdivision of the 諸夏, including states such a 齊 and 魯.

  In parallel with the 堔 L � appellations arose the 埽寊 appellations, 埽寊 on its own and 埣捄寊, and, the two words may well be cognate, the common 埽堮 L �.

  In the Warring States period the cultural distinction gave way to a geographical distinction, and the 中國 states were now the state occupying the Central Plain

• QUESTION PARTICLES
  

  Basic sentence-final question particles:乎 marks narrative or narratively descriptive verbal questions, and also indirect questions.耶 marks judgmental questions.也 can mark objective judgmental questions “何謂也　"what does this mean" not "what are you trying to say?" 哉 can mark emotionally charged rhetorical questions.

• NAME
  

  1. The current general word for a name is míng 名 (ant. shí 實 "reality").

  2. Wèi 謂 refers generally to the act of calling something by a certain name.

  3. Yuē 曰 is weaker in meaning and often refers to something being known as or called X.

  4. Mìng 命 typically refers to what is construed as a deliberate act of creating a name or making creative use of a name with the assumption that others should follow the practice.

  5. Chēng 稱 typically refers simply to establishing a new name for something or using a name in a special way.

  6. Shì 諡 refers as a technical term to formally conferring a posthumous name on someone or to that name itself. (See PERSONAL NAME)

• COPULA
  

  1. Classical Chinese had several common copulas at an early stage: wéi 維 / 唯 / 惟 (ant. fēi 非 "is not") was common in SHI and SHU, but discontinued later.

  2. The final particle yě 也 is interpreted by some as a sentence-final copula, but it is properly regarded as a sentential particle marking non-narrative modes of predication.

  3. The standard copula in Warring States Chinese is wéi 為, which tends to have human subjects and is by no means as common in Chinese as the copula is in Western languages.

  4. Yuē 曰 is current as a copula in listings of items and the like.

  5. Yún 云 is a rare archaising copula in ZUO.

  6. Zé 則 is copula-like after contrastive subjects.

  7. Nǎi 乃 is copula-like and contrastive and stresses that the subject is none other than the predicate.

  8. Dāng 當 "act as, fulfill the function of" is copula-like, but there is only a slight degree of grammaticalisation in the direction of a copula.

  9. Wèi 謂 "be counted as, count as" sometimes moves in the direction of copula-like uses.

  10. Shì 是 is a resumptive demonstrative pronoun which on very rare occasions can come to function very much as a copula.

  11. Zhòng 中 has some copula-like uses in GUAN, when the word means "amount to, cost" and sometimes even stands before ordinary nominal predicates.

  12. Yǐ 以 "as a SUBJECT" functions quite regularly as a subordinate copula in classical Chinese.

• BELIEVE
  

  [BASIC/MARGINAL]

  [EXPLICIT/IMPLICIT]

  [GENERAL/SPECIFIC]

  [FALSE/TRUE]

  [FUTURE/PAST/PRESENT]

  [HIGH-DEGREE/LOW-DEGREE]

  [IDIOM/WORD]

  [OBJECTIVE/SUBJECTIVE]

  1. Yǐ wéi 以為 and occasionally also yǐ 以 alone refer to a belief that is typically held to be less than reliable.

  [EXPLICIT], [GENERAL], [SUBJECTIVE], [VERB]

  2. Yǐ 以 alone sometimes refers to a belief that is typically held to be less than reliable, and seems simply short for yǐ wéi 以為.

  3. Wèi 謂 typically refers to a mistaken belief.

  [EXPLICIT], [FALSE!], [SUBJECTIVE], [VERB]

  4. Yì 意 refers to guesswork, anticipation and the like. See GUESS

  [FUTURE]

  5. Xìn 信 is sometimes used to refer to conviction, to someone trusting something to be the case or being confident that something is the case.

  [HIGH-DEGREE], [IMPLICIT], [VERB]

  6. Shì yóu 視猶 "look upon as" is occasionally used to refer to a belief attached to an attitude.

  [IDIOM], [IMPLICIT], [SUBJECTIVE], [VERB]

  7. Mín xīn 民心 is public opinion.

  [IDIOM], [IMPLICIT], [NOUN], [SPECIFIC]

  8. Jiàn 見 "view" is very occasionally used figuratively to refer to an opinion.

  [IMPLICIT], [MARGINAL], [NOUN]; [[RARE]]

• COMMAND
  

  1. The standard current word for a command is lìng 令, and the content (not the words) of the command is typically in the sentence that follows. We do not find: 令曰, and it is significant that lìng 令 also regularly means "to cause to".

  2. Mìng 命 is typically an order from a person of high, perhaps even supernatural, authority, and what follows are often the words used to express the order. 命曰. Mìng 命 is an order on a higher level than lìng 令.

  3. Shǐ 使 often refers to a superior getting or sending subordinates to do something by an order, but this word never focusses on the form of words used. See SEND, CAUSE TO

  4. Zhì 制 is a formalised administrative instruction on procedure.

  5. Huī 麾 is an order given prototypically by signal of the hand, and in the process of a battle.

  6. Hào 號 is a publicly proclaimed political command or instruction.

  7. Wèi 謂 is simply a way of telling someone to do something, informally or formally, but without the formal force of a rigid order.

  8. Chì 敕 / 飭 is an order from a person in an elevated position, and in post-Buddhist times chì 敕 came to refer standardly to imperial orders.

• EXAMPLE
  

  The abstract notion of a generalisation being absent in Chinese, it is not surprising that the abstract notion of a "concrete example" is also not well represented in the vocabulary. I found only an isolated usage of the word tǐ 體 that seemed relevant, AND UNFORTUNATELY I HAVE LOST IT.

  1. The highly current verbal phrase to say that something is a relevant example is to say 是之謂也 "this is a case in point/an example". But the nominal use seems absent.

• REFER TO
  

  謂

• CROSSROADS
  

  1. Qú 衢 refers generally to an intersection of roads, either in a city or in the countryside, from which one can move in four or more directions, once in CC even nine directions.

  2. Chōng 衝 refers to such an intersection especially as a centre of communications.

  3. Jiē 街 is sometimes used to refer to a cross-road within a city.

  ERYA 一達謂之道路；二達謂之歧旁；三達謂之劇旁；四達謂之衢；五達謂之康；六達謂之莊；七達謂之劇驂；八達謂之崇期；九達謂之逵。 is a wonderful example of rationalisation in lexicography.

• HERO
  

  1. The current general term for a person of almost superhuman strength or talent is xióng 雄 (ant. yōng 庸 "ordinary person").

  2. Jié 傑 / 桀 refers to an outstanding hero.

  3. Yīng 英 focusses on the hero as an illustrious figure.

  4. Jùn 俊 focus on the hero as a remarkable figure towering above ordinary man.

  5. Háo 豪 focusses on the hero as possessed of very great strength.

  6. Shèng 聖 (ant. fán 凡 "ordinary person") focusses on the hero as possessed of very great superior creativity and wisdom, and the word is mostly expanded to shèng rén 聖人.

  7. Xián 賢 (ant. bù xiào 不肖 "the incompetent") focusses on the hero as possessed of very unusually high moral, political, and practical talents.

  WENZI, shangli: 智過百人謂之杰，十人謂之豪，千人謂之俊，萬人謂之英。

  HUAINAN, taizu: 故智過萬人者謂之英，千人者謂之俊，百人者謂之豪，十人者謂之杰。

• ANSWER
  

  [ASCENDING/HORIZONTAL/DESCENDING]

  [COMMON/RARE]

  [FAST/SLOW]

  1. The dominant general word for responding to something that has been addressed to one is duì 對 (converse wèi 謂 "address"), but that word usually refers to a reply directed at a superior who has put a question or occasionally a response to a statement by a superior.

  [ASCENDING], [GENERAL]

  2. Dá 答 (ant. jīn 吟 ( 口字旁加金字 ) 而不答 "not answer") refers to an immediate unpremeditated reply.

  [ASCENDING], [FAST]

  3. Yìng 應 (ant. 喑 "keep quiet") is to come up with an immediate reaction of which the linguistic reply is a central part.

  [FAST]; [[RARE]]

  4. Chóu 酬 can occasionally refer to a polite formal reply.

  [FORMAL], [POLITE]; [[RARE]]

• ADDRESS
  

  [ASCENDING/HORIZONTAL/DESCENDING]

  [FORMAL/INFORMAL]

  [IMPORTANT/INSIGNIFICANT]

  [PRESCRIBED/SPONTANEOUS]

  [PRIVATE/PUBLIC]

  1. Duì 對 "respond" (opp. wèn 問 "ask") refers to responses to superiors (See REPLY) whereas wèi 謂 often addresses inferiors. Yán 言 is neutral in this respect.

  [ASCENDING], [FORMAL], [PRESCRIBED]

  2. Wèi 謂 is a common word referrring to any form of addressing (often of inferiors) for which the subject has taken an independent initiative.

  [DESCENDING!], [SPONTANEOUS]

  3. Yán 言 (ant. mò 默 "fail to speak up, remain silent") typically involves addressing someone with a formal (often public and political) suggestion, taking the initiative to speak up.

  [FORMAL], [PUBLIC!], [SPONTANEOUS]

  4. Gào 告 is typically to address an individual or a group in a formal way or in an important matter, and the content of the address is most often information, but there are also often questions or suggestions involved, when these questions and suggestions are passed on as a message from someone else than the speaker himself.

  [FORMAL], [IMPORTANT], [SPONTANEOUS]

• SPEAK
  

  1. The most colourless and general way of referring to any act of saying attributed to any subject, no matter whether animate or inanimate, something is yuē 曰, and the verb introduces what poses as direct but can often be the summarising of such speech and even the summarising of the subject's opinion.

  2. Yán 言 is to speak up, propose, typically in public, and on one's own initiative, to maintain something, and the word can indroduce direct speech as well as occasionally very limited indirect speech.

  3. Yǔ 語 is to say something as part of typically informal conversation. Contrast yù 語 "tell, inform" in REPORT.

  4. Tán 談 refers to informal communicative talk, sometimes but not always with some pejorative connotation.

  5. Yún 云 is used of books as well as persons and tends to refer to what are typically construed as authoritative acts of saying, and the word often has to be taken figuratively as "run as follows". (Note the perfectly regular contrast 曰 / 云 in MOUZI.)

  6. Wèi 謂 is to say or predicate something of someone. See also MEAN.

  7. Cí 辭 is primarily an act of careful articulation and rhetorical formulation.

  8. Dào 道 "speak of with authority, speak of adequately; quote" often involves quotation or especially serious discussion of important points, or the relating of important evidence.

  9. Jǔ 舉 is a technical term referring to the bringing up of a subject, and the subject of this verb is always a person, not a text.

  10. Chēng 稱 refers in a rather formal historian's style to the making of statements and the applying of terminology. See also NAME.

• REGRET
  

  1. The current general word for regret of one's actions is huǐ 悔, whereas the current general word for regretting past experience is hèn 恨.　LH: 鳥與人異，謂之能悔。

  2. Jiù 疚 refers to specifically moral regret.

  3. Xí 惜 refers to emotional and sentimental regret.