Additional information about 墓
說文解字: 【墓】，丘也。从土、莫聲。 【莫故切】
- Criteria
- CHINA
睡虎地秦墓竹簡 1978: 226 臣邦人不安秦主而欲去夏者, 勿許. 何謂夏 ? 欲去親屬是謂夏.
The words for China have this in common that they do NOT designate any one state. 中國 "the central states" is implicitly plural when it does not refer to the capital city. 諸夏 the various Xià (states)" is explicitly plural. The standard Imperium Romanum has no counterpart in Chinese until very late, unless one admits 天下 "all under Heaven" as a designation for the empire. But 天下 does not define any bounded empire. It remains to be seen exactly when a standard term for China was took shape. Compare the problems of finding a term for the Chinese language.
Based on 顧頡剛 & 王樹民, “ 夏 ” 和 “ 中國 ”— 祖國古代的稱號, Zhongguo lishi dili luncong, Vol. 1 (Xi'an, 1981), 6-22).
In the Shu and Shi sections relating to the early Zhou, 區夏 (= 夏區 ), 有夏 and 時夏 (= 是夏 ) refers to the place in which the Zhou established their capital after their conquest of Shang, in contradistinction to Zhou 掇 homeland in the West ( 西土 ) and the close Zhou allies ( 一二邦 ). The Zhou referred to their own domain as 烠 he central city-state � ( 中國 ). Since 中國 in this usage refers to the territory directly governed by the Zhou, it is singular and used in exchange with 京師 and in contradistinction with 四方 and 四國. Other states also referred to their capital regions as 啎什縕 (thus Wu in GY 19.09.01/618); a (perhaps late) variant of this word is 啎尹塹 (Yugong).
After becoming strong, the states enfeoffed by Zhou asserted the community with the 周 by commencing to refer to themselves as 堔 L �, leading to the plural designation 埣悎 L �, used in contrast with designations like 啈 i 狄�. The distinction between the two groups was viewed as cultural, and its precise reference shifted over time, originally excluding states (like 楚 ) from the community of 諸夏 but later including them, or including them in the beginning, whilst later excluding them (like 秦 ). Some of the non- 諸夏 states were viewed as subservient to 諸夏 states, others as their enemies. The membership of 楚 to the 諸夏 circle was always insecure; it was, so to speak, was"always on probation.
The 東夏 made up a subdivision of the 諸夏, including states such a 齊 and 魯.
In parallel with the 堔 L � appellations arose the 埽寊 appellations, 埽寊 on its own and 埣捄寊, and, the two words may well be cognate, the common 埽堮 L �.
In the Warring States period the cultural distinction gave way to a geographical distinction, and the 中國 states were now the state occupying the Central Plain
- TOMB
1. The current general old word for a tomb of any kind with or without planted trees or a mound is mù 墓, and the term comes to refer specifically to the subterranean part of the tomb.
2. Fén 墳 refers to the visible part of the tomb in the shape of a sizeable tumulus typically planted with trees.
3. Qiū 丘 "tumulus" is an old way of referring to a tomb with special reference to its appearance above ground, and the suggestion is that it is of considerable size suitable for leading personalities.
4. Lǒng 壟 refers to a tomb with special reference to its appearance above ground as an imposing tumulus, but the reference is not normally to a ruler's tomb.
5. Zhǒng 冢 was occasionally used in Warring States times but became more current in Han times, and the word refers to an impressive tomb as a whole, including its subterraneous and its visible parts.
6. Yíng 塋 refers generally to the piece of land with the tomb on it.
7. Líng 陵 refers specifically to an imperial tomb compound with high tombs, surrounding parks, and surrounding tombs for close relatives, queen, brothers, and sisters.
8. Shān 山 can come to refer to an imperial tomb.
9. Xuè 穴 "cave" is occasionally used to refer to the underground part of a tomb.