COPULA  繫詞維

RELATION between a CATEGORY AND THINGS of that CATEGORY.
Antonym
  • NOTBE CONTRARY to what is SAID in the WORDS that FOLLOW.
    Hypernym
    • RELATIONFEATURE of TWO OR MORE THINGS TOGETHER.
      • FEATUREABSTRACT OBJECT a THING is SAID to BE OR to HAVE.
        • OBJECT[NO HYPERNYM.] WHAT one CAN NAME:refer to.
    See also
    • RESEMBLESAME in SOME FEATURES WHEREAS DIFFERENT in OTHER FEATURES.
      • EXISTBE-IN the UNIVERSE of SPACE AND TIME.
        • HAPPENARISE as AN EVENT.
          Hyponym
          • AS　BEING an N, V-ing []GRAMMAR[] 
            • SEEM　BE in APPEARANCE ONLY.
              • FOR EXAMPLE　COPULA>be an EXAMPLE
                Old Chinese Criteria
                1. Classical Chinese had several common copulas at an early stage: wéi 維 / 唯 / 惟 (ant. fēi 非 "is not") was common in SHI and SHU, but discontinued later.

                2. The final particle yě 也 is interpreted by some as a sentence-final copula, but it is properly regarded as a sentential particle marking non-narrative modes of predication.

                3. The standard copula in Warring States Chinese is wéi 為, which tends to have human subjects and is by no means as common in Chinese as the copula is in Western languages.

                4. Yuē 曰 is current as a copula in listings of items and the like.

                5. Yún 云 is a rare archaising copula in ZUO.

                6. Zé 則 is copula-like after contrastive subjects.

                7. Nǎi 乃 is copula-like and contrastive and stresses that the subject is none other than the predicate.

                8. Dāng 當 "act as, fulfill the function of" is copula-like, but there is only a slight degree of grammaticalisation in the direction of a copula.

                9. Wèi 謂 "be counted as, count as" sometimes moves in the direction of copula-like uses.

                10. Shì 是 is a resumptive demonstrative pronoun which on very rare occasions can come to function very much as a copula.

                11. Zhòng 中 has some copula-like uses in GUAN, when the word means "amount to, cost" and sometimes even stands before ordinary nominal predicates.

                12. Yǐ 以 "as a SUBJECT" functions quite regularly as a subordinate copula in classical Chinese.

                Modern Chinese Criteria
                是 is the standard modern copula.

                為 is literary in flavour.

                乃 (lit) is classical.

                系 is an old-fashioned or obsolescent copula.

                則 has copula usages

                算是

                屬

                rough draft to BEGIN TO identify synonym group members for analysis, based on CL etc. 18.11.2003. CH ／

                • Systematic Lexicography ( APRESJAN 2000) p. 231-260

                • Novyj objasnitel'nyj Slovar' Sinonimov Russkogo Jazyka ( APRESJAN 2004) p. 1007

                • A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages ( BUCK 1988) p. 9.91

                • A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages ( BUCK 1988) p. 9.92

                • Vocabulaire européen des philosophies. Dictionnaire des intraduisibles ( CASSIN 2004) p. 1125

                  SEIN

                • Vocabulaire européen des philosophies. Dictionnaire des intraduisibles ( CASSIN 2004) p. 419

                • Traite elementaire des synonymes grecques ( DUFOUR 1910) p. 57

                • Handbuch der lateinischen und griechischen Synonymik ( SCHMIDT 1889) p. 74

                • 《祖堂集》語法研究 Zǔtáng jí yǔfǎ yánjiū Studies in the Grammar of Zutang ji ( ZHANG MEILAN 2003) p. 46-68

                  A thorough study of copula constructions in ZTJ

                • The Encyclopedia of Philosophy ( BORCHERT 2005) p. 1.527

                • Quiddities. An Intermittently Philosophical Dictionary ( QUINE 1987) p. 36

                • Handbook of Greek Synonymes, from the French of M. Alex. Pillon, Librarian of the Bibliothèque Royale , at Paris, and one of the editors of the new edition of Plaché's Dictionnaire Grec-Français, edited, with notes, by the Rev. Thomas Kerchever Arnold, M.A. Rector of Lyndon, and late fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge ( PILLON 1850) p. no.199

                • The Greek Concept of Justice ( HAVELOCK 1978) p. 233FF

                • The Verb "be" in Ancient Greek Foundations of language ( KAHN 1973) p.

                • Essays on Being ( KAHN 2009) p.

                Words

                為  wéi OC: ɢʷal MC: ɦiɛ 196 AttributionsWD

                The standard copula in Warring States Chinese is wéi 為, which tends to have human subjects and is by no means as common in Chinese as the copula is in Western languages.

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+Ncount as N, be (an) N
                • vt+N.adVbeing an N to V; as an N to VCH
                • vt+Nmconsist ofconsist of Nm
                • vt+Npridenticalbe none other thanCH
                • vt+nproidenticalbe identical with npro, be identifiable as nproCH
                • vt+Nsubjectivebe (like), be (to someone's mind)
                • vt+V[0].adSconcessivemay well count as V-ing (nonetheless ...)LZ
                • vt+V[0]alternative為...(為)...　is it V1 or V2 (marker of alternative/disjunctive questions) (see also 為當, 為复, and 為是 in this function)
                • vt+V[0]copula斯為美"this is the (most) admirable":be definable as, count as (particularly/distinctly/most) V-ing
                • vt+V[0]passive為戮"get executed": have oneself VERBed
                • vt+V[0]V=compbe the most V; count as (the most) V 最為大
                • vtoN.postadVverbal complement
                • vtt+N1.oN2be N2 in relation to N1; cf. Russian я буду ЕМУ женойDS
                是  shì OC: ɡljeʔ MC: dʑiɛ 107 AttributionsWD

                Shì 是 is a resumptive demonstrative pronoun which on very rare occasions can come to function very much as a copula.

                  Syntactic words
                • npro{PRED}copulais this (compare 是也): becomes emphatic postposed copula
                • vt(+N)be such a contextually determiate N; be a case in point
                • vt+Nbe
                • vt+N1.+Vt+N2alternativeis it N1 or is it N2?
                • vt+npro.adNintensitiveintensifying copula preceding certain pronouns in adnominal position, sometimes used contrastive: 是我+N1...是你+N2...
                • vt+npro.adVintensitiveintensifying copula preceding certain pronouns, since the intensifying function is often neutralized, 是 is sometimes also regarded as prefix (however, the copula function of 是 is in most cases evident); this function appeared during the Tang(e.g. 是誰，是你，是我，是他，是底，是物)
                • vt+V[0]alternativecopula as marker of an alternative/disjunction question: 是 A 是 B? Is it A or is it B 是一是二？
                • vt+V[0]intensitivebe V-ing, be of the V kind
                • vt+V[0]V=passivebe V-ed
                • vtoNcopulawould be
                • vtoSintensitiveemphatic copula, giving emphasis to a whole sentence: it is surely the case that... (often with emphatic sentence final yě 也)
                曰  yuē OC: ɢʷad MC: ɦi̯ɐt 52 AttributionsWD

                Yuē 曰 is current as a copula in listings of items and the like.

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+N1.postad N2N2 being N1
                • vt+Ncopulabe
                • vt+Srun as follows: S
                惟  wéi OC: k-lul MC: ji
                唯  wéi OC: k-lul MC: ji
                隹  wéi MC: -- OC: -- 17 AttributionsWD

                Classical Chinese had several common copulas at an early stage: wéi 維/唯/惟 (ant. fēi 非 "is not") was common in SHI and SHU, but discontinued later.

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+Nbe N; be N (and none/nothing else)
                • vt+N.postNPab{S}signify
                • vt+Ncopulacome to occur at (a certain time)
                • vt+N{OBJ}:+npro.+Vtinversion, emphaticit is N which is the object of VtDS
                • vt+N{SUBJ}.+V{PRED}OBI: be (the SUBJECT which PREDICATES); be the only N who Vs
                • vt+V[0]be the one who V-s
                • vt0 Nab{S}It was all a matter of SCH
                • vt0+N.+V[0]it is N that Vs
                • vtpostVt{NEG}be
                乃  nǎi OC: nɯɯʔ MC: nəi
                迺  nǎi OC: nɯɯʔ MC: nəi 12 AttributionsWD

                Nǎi 乃 is copula-like and contrastive and stresses that the subject is none other than the predicate.

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+Ncopulaemphatic/contrastive: be THAT (was the difficult part)
                • vt+Ncopulabe none other than N(PRED)
                作  zuò OC: tsaaɡs MC: tsuo̝
                作  zuò OC: tsaals MC: tsɑ
                作  zuò OC: tsaaɡ MC: tsɑk 12 AttributionsWD

                  Word relations
                • Contrast: 為/COPULA The standard copula in Warring States Chinese is wéi 為, which tends to have human subjects and is by no means as common in Chinese as the copula is in Western languages.

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+Nact as; be; be regarded as; have as attribute; have as feature
                • vt+NbeCH
                • vt+Ncopulabecome, come to be, come to act as, come to fill the role as
                • vt+V[0]intensitivecount as being V; be regarded as being V; become V
                • vtoN.postadVV and become/be N 喚作
                • vtoN1.postN2N2 regarded as N1; N2 counted as being N1
                為復  wéi fù OC: ɢʷal buɡs MC: ɦiɛ bɨu 12 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPt+V[0]alternativedisyllabic copula used for forming alternative (disjunctive) questions: 為復..., (為復)... 'is it A or is it B' (復 is semantically very weak and is often regarded as structure word for forming a disyllabic copula, compare 為當 which functions identical to 為復; there are several current patterns: 為復 X 為復 Y; 為 X 為復 Y; X 為復 Y; 為當 X 為复 Y)
                名  míng OC: meŋ MC: miɛŋ 11 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • vtoN1.postadN2be called> who is called; who is known known as
                名為  míng wéi OC: meŋ ɢʷal MC: miɛŋ ɦiɛ 11 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPtoNbe called N
                即  jí OC: tsɯɡ MC: tsɨk 10 AttributionsWD

                • Studies in the Language of Zǔtáng jí 祖堂集 ( ANDERL 2004B) p. 475-477

                  Seemingly ji2 即 can function independently similar to a copula, 'be the same as' in the

                  pattern VP(X) + ji2 即 (COP) + VP(Y):

                  ZTJ 1.106,01; WU: 64

                  “會即不會，

                  hui4 ji2 bu4 hui4

                  understand/COP?/NEG/understand

                  "To understand is the same as not to understand

                  疑即不疑。”

                  yi2 ji2 bu4 yi2

                  doubt/COP?/NEG/doubt

                  and to doubt is the same as not to doubt."

                  Pattern ji2 即 (COP) + NP(X) + ji2 即 (COP) + NP(Y) "NP(X) is the same as NP(Y)"

                  ZTJ 1.119; WU: 74

                  “即心即佛。”

                  ji2 xi1n ji2 fo2

                  COP/mind/COP/buddha

                  "This very mind is the Buddha."

                  Is there any difference of the phrase above to the phrase shi4 xi1n shi4 Fo2 是心是佛? (ZTJ 1.078; WU: 50)

                  Syntactically the following phrase is much clearer:

                  zi4 xi1n shi4 Fo2 自心是佛 "[one's] own mind is Buddha" (ZTJ 1.096; WU: 59)

                  The phrase has the pattern NP + COP + NP. To make the matter even more complicated there are also the following phrases:

                  即心是佛 "This very mind is the Buddha" (ZTJ 1.132; WU: 81)

                  此心即是佛心 "This mind [of yours] is the very Buddha-mind." (ZTJ 4.033; WU: 304)

                  Judging from the contexts of the above phrases, the meanings seem to be identical. It does not seem likely that the speaker/narrator wants to convey any subtle semantic differences by using these various constructions. The message is the same: one掇 own mind is nothing else than the mind of the Buddha (i.e. there is no need to search for an external Buddha). Are all those examples above merely cases of variatio?1276 The examples are semantically identical but syntactically different.

                  There are the following constructions:

                  NP + COP + NP (自心是佛)

                  NP + COP-COP + NP (此心即是佛心)

                  NPRO.DEM + NP + COP + NP (是心是佛)1277

                  But what about the phrase 即心是佛?

                  Ji2 is not common as demonstrative pronoun but the structure is identical to the phrase 是心是佛. One possible explanation for this phenomenon is that ji2 即, after having become commonly used as copula functioning similar to shi4, occasionally also filled other functions of shi4 (like the one of a demonstrative pronoun). Maybe this is a strange case of analogy. [However, there remain many questions (of course also the problem concerning the relationship between demonstrative shi4 and copula shi4) which cannot be treated here sufficiently. But I think that variatio probably plays an important role in the usage of different copula constructions. ]

                  Pattern ji2 即 (COP) + NP(X) + shi4 是 (COP) + NP(Y) 'NP(X) is the same as NP(Y)'

                  ZTJ 1.092; WU: 58

                  ”今居韶州曹溪山， 'He now dwells at Mt. Ca2oxi1 in Sha2o province,

                  示悟眾生即心是佛。“ instructing and enlightening the living beings to the fact that the very mind is the Buddha.'

                  Pattern NP(X) + ji2 即 (COP) + NP(Y) + shi4 是 (COP) 'NP(X) is NP(Y)'

                  Here an interpretation of ji2 as conjuction preceding the subject is possible:

                  ZTJ 1.102; WU: 62

                  “欲識四祖， 'If you want to get to know the Fourth Patriarch -

                  即吾身是。”

                  ji2 wu2-she1n shi4

                  CONJ?/NPRO1SG/body/COP

                  that's who I am.'

                  However, the example below makes the above interpretation as conjunction doubtful because ji2 cannot be interpreted in this way in the following structurally identical example:

                  1134) ZTJ 4.085,06; WU: 335

                  “如何是佛？” "How is Buddha?"

                  馬師云： Master Ma3[zu3]4 said:

                  “即汝心是。” "He is nothing else than your mind/[He] is your very mind."

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+Ncopulabe, be like
                • vt+V[0]emphasising subjectbe the one who; be the ones whoCH
                • vtoNidenticalto be none other than 即+NP+是
                • vt{COP}+N1.vt{COP}+N2emphatic即+N1+即+N2: it is N1 which is N2 > the very N1 is N2, N1 is identical with N2
                即是  jí shì OC: tsɯɡ ɡljeʔ MC: tsɨk dʑiɛ 9 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPt+Ncopulaemphatic copula construction: be exactly the same as, identical with
                然  rán MC: nyen OC: njenLZ 9 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • vibe so, be like thatLZ
                • vt(oN)causativeto cause the contextually determinate N to be so; make things so; bring this aboutLZ
                當  dāng OC: taaŋ MC: tɑŋ 7 AttributionsWD

                Dāng 當 "act as, fulfill the function of" is copula-like, but there is only a slight degree of grammaticalisation in the direction of a copula. xxx

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+V[0]questioncopula marking subsequent interrogative sentences referring to the same topic
                • vt+V{NUM}semantically very weak copula-like verb preceding numerals
                • vtoNcopulaplay the role of, be; function as
                維  wéi OC: k-lul MC: ji 7 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • vt+N1.+VtoN2N1=pivotit was N1 who did N2DS
                • vt+Ncopulato be only/exactly
                • vt+V(0)be Vish; be of V qualityDS
                乃是  nǎi shì OC: nɯɯʔ ɡljeʔ MC: nəi dʑiɛ 3 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPt+Nbe none other than; be very much an N
                必  bì OC: piɡ MC: pit 2 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • vadN{PRED}have to be
                造  zào OC: sɡuuʔ MC: dzɑu 2 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • vtoNcopulaexist as, become, act as
                中  zhōng OC: krluŋ MC: ʈuŋ 1 AttributionWD

                Zhòng 中 has some copula-like uses in GUAN, when the word means "amount to, cost" and sometimes even stands before ordinary nominal predicates. xxx

                  Syntactic words
                • vtoNamount to, be equal to (a sum of money or an amount of some commodity); cost, be valued at
                云  yún OC: ɢun MC: ɦi̯un 1 AttributionWD

                Yún 云 is a rare archaising copula in ZUO.

                  Syntactic words
                • vt+Ncopulabe
                為是  wéi shì OC: ɢʷal ɡljeʔ MC: ɦiɛ dʑiɛ 1 AttributionWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPt+Nbe
                為當  wéi dāng OC: ɢʷal taaŋ MC: ɦiɛ tɑŋ 1 AttributionWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPt+V[0]alternativedisyllabic copula used for forming alternative questions: 為當 X (為當) Y 'is it X or is it Y' (there are several patterns, 為當 X 為复 Y; see also 為, 為复, and 為是 is this function)
                以  yǐ OC: k-lɯʔ MC: jɨ 0 AttributionsWD

                Yǐ 以 "as a SUBJECT" functions quite regularly as a subordinate copula in classical Chinese.

                  Syntactic words
                係  xì OC: keeɡs MC: kei 0 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • vt+NdisjunctionCHRISTIAN CHINESE: be it N1 OR be it N2
                叀  Click here to add pinyin OC:  MC: 0 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • padV.postN{SUBJ}emphaticIt is the SUBJECT that V-s
                • vt+Nbe N (emphatic)
                • vt+N{OBJ}(.adVt)it is the N that the SUBJECT Vt-s
                • vt0+N.+VOBI: It is N that should V or V-s
                • vt0+N.adSOBI: It should be/is at the time N that S;
                成  chéng OC: djeŋ MC: dʑiɛŋ 0 AttributionsWD

                  Word relations
                • Contrast: 為/COPULA The standard copula in Warring States Chinese is wéi 為, which tends to have human subjects and is by no means as common in Chinese as the copula is in Western languages.

                  Syntactic words
                即為  jí wéi OC: tsɯɡ ɢʷal MC: tsɨk ɦiɛ 0 AttributionsWD
                  Syntactic words
                • VPt+Ncopulaemphatic copula construction: be exactly the same as, be like, be the same as, be none other than

                Existing SW for

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