耜  sì OC: sɢlɯʔ MC: zɨ 9 Attributions

The current general word for a plough of any kind is sì 耜, but the word can refer specifically to the hand pullen plough with a cross-bar to step on. [Sì 耜 resembles a spade with a broader head made of wood, bone, stone, since the Warring States also iron, and it could be also used to dig earth. Originally, the word referred specifically to the just described kind of implement, but since the Han period when real oxen-pulled plough came to common use (see below), the term became the general word for a plough of any kind.

Word relations
• Assoc: 耒/PLOUGH Lěi 耒 is the most ancient form of a typically hand-pulled plough with one (later in Han times two) wooden ploughshare which is held in the hand on an upper cross-bar and stepped on on a lower cross-bar, but this character is rarely used on its own. When in the construction lěi sì 耒耜 this refers to a lěi 耒-type sì 耜, i.e. a shovel-like plough with a long handle and cross-bars to tread on and to hold on to. [It is not easy to distinguish between lěi 耒 and sì 耜 in ancient texts; moreover, as noted above, both terms has a long history and can refer to different implements in different periods. It seems that main distinctions between both were probably originally as follows: lěi 耒 was simple crooked wooden stick with upper and lower cross-bar, whereas sì 耜 more resembled spade with broader head (see above). The latter could be also used to dig earth, and sometimes can not be easily distinguished from chā 臿. Already in the Chunqiu period, lěi 耒 and sì 耜 were combined together, and this implement can be referred to as lěi 耒, sì 耜, or lěi sì 耒耜. Since its handle was more lěi 耒-like, and its head more sì 耜-like, the word lěi 耒 can also refer to the handle of the implement, and sì 耜 to its head. In Han times, all these terms can refer to a plough generally (including oxen-pulled plough of the lí3 犁 type; see below), or specifically to each kind of implement which were just described, and which all survived to the Han period. [ZHOU 1998: 18 - 21, 28; HUANG 1995: 344 - 348; CHEN 1991: 89 - 90, 133: ill.: ZHOU 1998: 1-013] 2 Attributions

Syntactic words
• ngenerally: agricultural tools; ploughshare-type spade; primitive plough　see 黃金貴《辨考》2016，p. 233.9 Attributions

耒  lěi OC: rulʔ MC: li 7 Attributions

Lěi 耒 is the most ancient form of a typically hand-pulled plough with one (later in Han times two) wooden ploughshare which is held in the hand on an upper cross-bar and stepped on on a lower cross-bar, but this character is rarely used on its own. When in the construction lěi sì 耒耜 this refers to a lěi 耒-type sì 耜, i.e. a shovel-like plough with a long handle and cross-bars to tread on and to hold on to. [It is not easy to distinguish between lěi 耒 and sì 耜 in ancient texts; moreover, as noted above, both terms has a long history and can refer to different implements in different periods. It seems that main distinctions between both were probably originally as follows: lěi 耒 was simple crooked wooden stick with upper and lower cross-bar, whereas sì 耜 more resembled spade with broader head (see above). The latter could be also used to dig earth, and sometimes can not be easily distinguished from chā 臿. Already in the Chunqiu period, lěi 耒 and sì 耜 were combined together, and this implement can be referred to as lěi 耒, sì 耜, or lěi sì 耒耜. Since its handle was more lěi 耒-like, and its head more sì 耜-like, the word lěi 耒 can also refer to the handle of the implement, and sì 耜 to its head. In Han times, all these terms can refer to a plough generally (including oxen-pulled plough of the lí3 犁 type; see below), or specifically to each kind of implement which were just described, and which all survived to the Han period. [ZHOU 1998: 18 - 21, 28; HUANG 1995: 344 - 348; CHEN 1991: 89 - 90, 133: ill.: ZHOU 1998: 1-013]

Word relations
• Assoc: 耜/PLOUGH The current general word for a plough of any kind is sì 耜, but the word can refer specifically to the hand pullen plough with a cross-bar to step on. [Sì 耜 resembles a spade with a broader head made of wood, bone, stone, since the Warring States also iron, and it could be also used to dig earth. Originally, the word referred specifically to the just described kind of implement, but since the Han period when real oxen-pulled plough came to common use (see below), the term became the general word for a plough of any kind. 2 Attributions

Syntactic words
• nplough; hand-pulled plough; wooden digging tool consisting of wooden stick with perpendicular piece of wood for stepping on [ill.; Zhou 1998, 1-001] [jm].7 Attributions

犁  lí OC: riil MC: lei 2 Attributions

Lí 犁 is a plough driven, originally, by three people, one guiding the plough-share, the other two pulling the plough. The plow-pullers were replaced by oxen at the stage where the modern current character was developed. The lí 犁 currently pulled by oxen by Han times had iron plough shares. [It is not clear when this kind of plough came to use. Some scholars interpret finds of triangular stone implements known from the Neolithic like evidence for this kind of plough, but it should be noted that all these artefacts come from the southern part of China, far apart from the core area of the later states of the 2nd and 1st millenium B.C. In fact, from northern China there is no convincing evidence for this kind of plough prior to the late Chunqiu. Moreover, it is not clear when the plough began to be pulled by an oxen; the oldest evidence for a pulling oxen also dates from the late Chunqiu period. In the Warring States and particularly in the Han, oxen-pulled plough came to common use, and there are many finds of iron ploughshares from these periods. It should be noted that even in that time, this kind of plough was not ussually referred to as lí3 犁 in texts, but rather as lěi 耒 or sì 耜. The term lí3 犁 was probably a colloquial word.

Syntactic words
• npost-Han: plough first mostly pulled by men, from Eastern Han times onwards often pulled by oxen2 Attributions

耒耜  lěi sì OC: rulʔ sɢlɯʔ MC: li zɨ 2 Attributions

Lěi 耒 is the most ancient form of a typically hand-pulled plough with one (later in Han times two) wooden ploughshare which is held in the hand on an upper cross-bar and stepped on on a lower cross-bar, but this character is rarely used on its own. When in the construction lěi sì 耒耜 this refers to a lěi 耒-type sì 耜, i.e. a shovel-like plough with a long handle and cross-bars to tread on and to hold on to. [It is not easy to distinguish between lěi 耒 and sì 耜 in ancient texts; moreover, as noted above, both terms has a long history and can refer to different implements in different periods. It seems that main distinctions between both were probably originally as follows: lěi 耒 was simple crooked wooden stick with upper and lower cross-bar, whereas sì 耜 more resembled spade with broader head (see above). The latter could be also used to dig earth, and sometimes can not be easily distinguished from chā 臿. Already in the Chunqiu period, lěi 耒 and sì 耜 were combined together, and this implement can be referred to as lěi 耒, sì 耜, or lěi sì 耒耜. Since its handle was more lěi 耒-like, and its head more sì 耜-like, the word lěi 耒 can also refer to the handle of the implement, and sì 耜 to its head. In Han times, all these terms can refer to a plough generally (including oxen-pulled plough of the lí3 犁 type; see below), or specifically to each kind of implement which were just described, and which all survived to the Han period.

Syntactic words
• NPnonreferentialgeneric: plough of any kind see 黃金貴 《辨考》2016: 2332 Attributions

發  fā OC: pod MC: pi̯ɐt 1 Attribution

Fā1 發 refers to the opening up of land for agricultural cultivation.

Syntactic words
• vtoNpassiveopen up new land1 Attribution

坺  Click here to add pinyin OC:  MC: 0 Attributions

Syntactic words
• vito plough0 Attributions

庛  cì OC: tshes MC: tshiɛ 0 Attributions

Syntactic words
• nlower end of plough handle (ZHOULI)0 Attributions

耬  lóu OC: ɡ-roo MC: lu 0 Attributions

Lóu 耬 refers to the seeding plough invented in Han times.

Syntactic words

菑  zī OC: tsrɯ MC: ʈʂɨ 0 Attributions

Syntactic words
• viactplough; break the soil0 Attributions

鏟  chǎn OC: sŋʰreenʔ MC: ʈʂhɣɛn 0 Attributions

Syntactic words
• na shovel with a large head used to move earth0 Attributions

偶耕  ǒu gēng OC: ŋooʔ kreeŋ MC: ŋu kɣɛŋ 0 Attributions

Syntactic words
• VPiactplough together with someone else, using two ploughs but moving clods of earth together0 Attributions