METAPHORA  比喻引伸法

METAPHORA in the form of an implicit COMPARATIO in which an expression is taken not in its literal sense but in a sense derived from the literal sense so as to indicate an implicit comparison and abstraction from detail.

Figurative substitution for the proper verb or noun (e.g. "warrior") of another word which evokes special features of the proper word (e.g. "lion").

Note that in general the phenomenon of lexicalised figurative usage is best studied in TLS by searching for the semantic category FIG. Under METAPHORA I collect those cases where the figurative usage does not appear to have been lexicalised. The distinction between FIG and METAPHORA is exasperatingly often arbitrary.

Another difficult contrast is between METONYMY where there is a variously defined but semantically clear relation of the extended use to the primary use of a word, METAPHORA, in which there is only poetic suggestiveness and no clear and explicit, semantic link, and finallly SYNECDOCHE, in which the relation is one of taxonymy or of mereonymy (part-whole relationship).

ALLEGORIA is sustained and systematic metaphorical discourse.

Hypernym
  • COMPARATIORHETORICAL TROPE in which things are explained by means of comparing them to other things.
    • SPEECH ACTRHETORICAL TROPE in the form of a deliberate rhetorico-semantic act performed. [This definition is still a tentative stop-gap, and this category is far larger than I would like. It needs to be intelligently subdivided. CH]
      • RHETORICAL TROPE體裁詞格　RHETORICAL DEVICE mainly concerned with the structural semantics of expressions.
  • METONYMYRhRHETORICAL TROPE in the form of the use of an expression in a meaning which it literally does not have but which is clearly related to the basic meaning of that expression.Substitution of a semantically clearly related but literally inappropriate word for another literally appropriate word. The contrast is between METONYMY where there is a variously defined but semantically clear relation of the extended use to the primary use of a word, METAPHORA, in which there is only poetic suggestiveness and no clear and explicit, semantic link, and finallly SYNECDOCHE, in which the relation is one of taxonymy or of mereonymy (part-whole relationship).
    • RHETORICAL TROPE體裁詞格　RHETORICAL DEVICE mainly concerned with the structural semantics of expressions.
Hyponym
  • ALLEGORIAExtended narrative METAPHORA. Sustained metaphorical discourse, typically in a narrative context.
    • PARABLE　ALLEGORIA that is short and illustrates a moral truth.
    • METAPHORA-CONVENTIONAL慣用比喻法　Conventional METAPHORA
      <div>The Western Literature on Metaphor is vast and easily accessible. Russian literature is essential, and only partially taken account of in Western metaphor studies. Specifically for the Chinese perspective on metaphor studies the following are among the basic sources that need attention:<br></div><div>袁暉　《比喻》，合肥：安徽人民出版社，1981</div><div>張明罔　《比喻常識》　北京：北京出版社, 1985</div><div>李濟中　《比喻論析》　石家莊：河北大學出版社，1995</div><div>李忠初　《錢鐘書的比喻藝術》　長沙：嶽麓書社，1994</div><div>胡永林主编;李琦等编写　《文学比喻辞典》西安：陕西人民教育出版社，1986</div><div>馮廣藝　馮學鋒　《文學語言學》　北京：中國三峽出版社，1994</div><div>馮廣藝　《漢語修辭論》　武漢：話中師範大學出版社，2000</div><div>汉语比喻大辞典_11106255</div><div>33052164_漢語比喻研究史_馮廣藝著_湖北教育</div><div><br></div><div>Zhuangzi is particularly important for metaphor studies, and the following sources are useful in this area. The pdf titles in the TLS collection are as follows:<br></div><div>《庄子》篇章层面的比喻研究</div><div>略论庄子表述的三种方法_寓言_比喻_类比</div><div>庄子_词句层面的比喻研究</div><div>孟子_和_庄子_中比喻的异同</div><div>先秦诸子比喻研究的回顾与展望</div><div>从_庄子_中的比喻体会庄子修辞思想</div><div>Metaphor etc in Modern Chinese_比喻近喻与自喻辞格的认识研究_刘大为着_上海教育-1</div><div>汉语比喻大辞典_11106255</div><div>33052164_漢語比喻研究史_馮廣藝著_湖北教育</div><div>庄子_逍遥游_的比喻特色</div><div>庄子的比喻特色研究</div><div>比喻_庄子幽默的重要载体</div><div>比喻分类和比喻民族文化色彩(1)</div><div>比喻的运用与风格的体现_从_逍遥游_看庄子的语言艺术</div><div>比喻语林_周宏溟编_长沙市：湖南...</div><div>略论_庄子_的比喻形成的现代汉语成语</div><div>试析_庄子_比喻词的类型与特征</div><div>钱钟书的比喻艺术_李忠初著，岳麓书社1994年版<br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div>In TLS this form is taken in a broader sense than is generally current, to </div> cover the figuratively extended use of verbs in addition to nouns.

      Abbreviated elliptic comparison. "He fought like a lion" is a comparison, "he was a lion in battle" is a metaphor.

      REF: Lausberg 558-564. For Chinese see the work of Pauline Yu.

      EX: Video for intelligo, "I look up to" for "I esteem".

      Greek/Latin: Aristotle, Rhetoric 1406b20; Quintilian 8.6.8: metaphora brevior est similitudo, eoque distat, quod illa comparatur rei quam volumus exprimere, haec pro ipsa re dicitur; comparatio est, cum dico fecisse qued hominem 'ut leonem'; translatio, cum dico de homine 'leo est.

      Cicero, de oraotore 3.39.157 (translatio) similitudinis est ad verbum unum contracta brevitas

      Ancient Chinese: Quite common in poetry and prose. The contrast in use of metaphors in different text sorts and in different authors need to be explored.

      meng 7b21, Lau 295

      孟子謂高子曰： Mencius said to Gaozi

      「山徑之蹊， "A track among the mountains footpaths

      間介然用之而成路； if used regularly for a while becomes a path.

      為間不用， But if it is not used for a time,

      則茅塞之矣。 then reeds will block it.

      今茅塞子之心矣。」 Now reeds are blocking up your heart&gt;mind."

      The term "reeds" is to be taken metaphorically, figuratively. One could have added a phrase like "in a manner of speaking", si licet dicere. We need to make an historical inventory or at least some sort of bestiary of customary metaphoric and figurative use of language in ancient Chinese poetry and prose.

      Rhetorical device locations: 37
      • 韓非子 “上仁為之而無以為也。”

        上

      • 韓非子 而莫知萬物之盡有爪角也，

        爪角

      • 韓非子 則刑法之爪角害之。

        爪角

      • 韓非子 而萬物莫不有規矩，

        規矩

      • 韓非子 聖人盡隨於萬物之規矩，

        規矩

      • 韓非子 慈於方圓者
      • 韓非子 一建其趨舍，

        建 . NOTE THAT THESE PHENOMENA ARE CAPTURED BY THE SEMANTIC CATEGORY "FIG".

      • 道德經 有名萬物之母。

        母

      • 道德經 眾妙之門。

        門

      • 道德經 強字之曰道。

        字 . Metaphorical, almost ironic usage.

      • 道德經 不善人者善人之資。

        資

      • 道德經 雖智大迷，

        資

      • 道德經 以為天下母。

        母

      • 道德經 以知其子。
      • 道德經 大國者下流，

        下流

      • 道德經 我有三寶
      • 道德經 言有宗、
      • 道德經 事有君。

        君

      • 論語 「德不孤， 必有鄰

        孤

      • 論語 仁以為己任，

        任

      • 論語 不亦重乎？

        重

      • 論語 不亦遠乎？」

        遠

      • 莊子 野馬也，

        野馬 for dusty particles.

      • 莊子 生物之以息相吹也。

        息 "breath" for wind.

      • 莊子 實之賓也。

        賓

      • 莊子 則夫子猶有蓬之心也夫！」
      • 莊子 今子有五石之瓠， 何不慮以為大樽 而浮乎江湖 而憂其瓠落無所容 則夫子猶有蓬之心也夫
      • 莊子 「夫大塊噫氣，

        噫

      • 莊子 前者唱于

        唱

      • 莊子 而隨者唱喁。

        唱

      • 莊子 是旦暮遇之也。
      • 史記 非畜天下者也，

        xù 畜, "to breed, domesticate", is a conventionalized metaphor for the concept of ordering or controlling a certain territory or its inhabitants, i.e. subjects, see entry in HYDCD

      • 史記 命之曰以天下為桎梏」者， 無他焉 不能督責 而顧以其身勞 於天下之民 若堯禹然 故謂之桎梏也

        zhìgù 桎梏 is the central innovative metaphor of this memorial: When a ruler serves the world instead of subjugating it, he fetters himself with it. The context exhibits numerous embeddings or carriers which explicate the metaphor.

      • 說苑 道以優游故能化，

        Revitalization of the metaphor of the Way: a way that is roamed freely upon is capable of being transformed, i.e. of changing its path. The terms 優游，河 and 山 point to the non-figurative meaning of 道 and thus serve as carriers which help to revitalize the figurative use of the word by highlighting its literal meaning: "path".

      • 論語 「苗而不秀者 有矣夫 秀而不實者 有矣夫
      • 論語 未墜於地，
      • 論語 仲尼日月也，